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Armenian | |
---|---|
հայերէն/հայերենhayeren | |
Pronunciation | [hɑjɛˈɾɛn] |
Native to | Armenia |
11.7 million[1][2] | |
Early forms | |
Standard forms | |
Official status | |
| |
Official (de jure) status:
Semi-official or unofficial (de facto) status:
| |
Regulated by | Institute of Language (Armenian National Academy of Sciences)[18] |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | hy |
ISO 639-2 | arm (B) hye (T) |
ISO 639-3 | Variously:hye – Eastern Armenianhyw – Western Armenianxcl – Classical Armenianaxm – Middle Armenian |
Glottolog | arme1241 [19] |
Linguasphere | 57-AAA-a |
Recognized minority language | |
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For a guide to IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. |
The Armenian language (classical: հայերէն; reformed: հայերեն[hɑjɛˈɾɛn]hayeren) is an Indo-European language that is the only language in the Armenian branch. It is the official language of Armenia as well as the de facto Republic of Artsakh. Historically being spoken throughout the Armenian Highlands, today, Armenian is widely spoken throughout the Armenian diaspora. Armenian is written in its own writing system, the Armenian alphabet, introduced in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots.
- 1History
- 1.2Early contacts
- 1.3Evolution
- 2Phonology
- 3Morphology
History[edit]
Classification and origins[edit]
![Leran Leran](/uploads/1/2/5/8/125839768/212718456.jpg)
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Armenian alphabet Romanization of Armenian |
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Armenian is an independent branch of the Indo-European languages.[20] It is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological developments within that family. Armenian exhibits more satemization than centumization, although it is not classified as belonging to either of these subgroups. Some linguists tentatively conclude that Armenian, Greek (Phrygian) and Indo-Iranian were dialectally close to each other;[21][22][23][24] within this hypothetical dialect group, Proto-Armenian was situated between Proto-Greek (centum subgroup) and Proto-Indo-Iranian (satem subgroup).[25] Others have noted unique morphological developments connecting Armenian to Balto-Slavic languages.[26]
Armenia was a monolingual country by the 2nd century BC at the latest.[27] Its language has a long literary history, with a 5th-century Bible translation as its oldest surviving text. Its vocabulary has historically been influenced by Western Middle Iranian languages, particularly Parthian, and to a lesser extent by Greek, Persian, and Syriac. There are two standardized modern literary forms, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible.[28][29][30][31]
Although Armenians were known to history much earlier (for example, they were mentioned in the 6th century BC Behistun Inscription and in Xenophon's 4th century BC history, The Anabasis),[32] the oldest surviving Armenian-language text is the 5th century AD Bible translation of Mesrop Mashtots, who created the Armenian alphabet in 405, at which time it had 36 letters. He is also credited by some with the creation of the Caucasian Albanian alphabet.
Early contacts[edit]
W. M. Austin (1942) concluded[33] that there was an early contact between Armenian and Anatolian languages, based on what he considered common archaisms, such as the lack of a feminine gender and the absence of inherited long vowels. However, unlike shared innovations (or synapomorphies), the common retention of archaisms (or symplesiomorphy) is not considered conclusive evidence of a period of common isolated development. However, there are words used in the Armenian that are generally believed to have been borrowed from Anatolian languages, particularly from Luwian, although some have identified possible Hittite loanwords as well.[34]
In 1985, Soviet linguist Igor M. Diakonoff noted the presence in Classical Armenian of what he calls a 'Caucasian substratum' identified by earlier scholars, consisting of loans from the Kartvelian and Northeast Caucasian languages.[35] Noting that Hurro-Urartian-speaking peoples inhabited the Armenian homeland in the second millennium BC, Diakonov identifies in Armenian a Hurro-Urartian substratum of social, cultural, and animal and plant terms such as ałaxin 'slave girl' ( ← Hurr. al(l)a(e)ḫḫenne), cov 'sea' ( ← Urart. ṣûǝ '(inland) sea'), ułt 'camel' ( ← Hurr. uḷtu), and xnjor 'apple(tree)' ( ← Hurr. ḫinzuri). Some of the terms he gives admittedly have an Akkadian or Sumerian provenance, but he suggests they were borrowed through Hurrian or Urartian. Given that these borrowings do not undergo sound changes characteristic of the development of Armenian from Proto-Indo-European, he dates their borrowing to a time before the written record but after the Proto-Armenian language stage.
Loan words from Iranian languages, along with the other ancient accounts such as that of Xenophon above, initially led linguists to erroneously classify Armenian as an Iranian language. Scholars such as Paul de Lagarde and F. Müller believed that the similarities between the two languages meant that Iranian and Armenian were the same language.[36] The distinctness of Armenian was recognized when philologist Heinrich Hübschmann (1875)[36][37] used the comparative method to distinguish two layers of Iranian words from the older Armenian vocabulary. He showed that Armenian often had 2 morphemes for the one concept, and the non-Iranian components yielded a consistent PIE pattern distinct from Iranian, and also demonstrated that the inflectional morphology was different from that in Iranian languages.
Graeco-Armenian hypothesis[edit]
The hypothesis that Greek is Armenian's closest living relative originates with Holger Pedersen (1924), who noted that the number of Greek-Armenian lexical cognates is greater than that of agreements between Armenian and any other Indo-European language. Antoine Meillet (1925, 1927) further investigated morphological and phonological agreement, postulating that the parent languages of Greek and Armenian were dialects in immediate geographical proximity in the Proto-Indo-European period. Meillet's hypothesis became popular in the wake of his Esquisse (1936). Georg Renatus Solta (1960) does not go as far as postulating a Proto-Graeco-Armenian stage, but he concludes that considering both the lexicon and morphology, Greek is clearly the dialect most closely related to Armenian. Eric P. Hamp (1976, 91) supports the Graeco-Armenian thesis, anticipating even a time 'when we should speak of Helleno-Armenian' (meaning the postulate of a Graeco-Armenian proto-language). Armenian shares the augment, and a negator derived from the set phrase Proto-Indo-European language*ne h₂oyu kʷid ('never anything' or 'always nothing'), and the representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels, and other phonological and morphological peculiarities with Greek. Nevertheless, as Fortson (2004) comments, 'by the time we reach our earliest Armenian records in the 5th century AD, the evidence of any such early kinship has been reduced to a few tantalizing pieces'.
Many modern scholars have rejected the Graeco-Armenian hypothesis, arguing that the linguistic proximity between the two languages has been overstated.[38][39][40][41][42]
Greco-Armeno-Aryan hypothesis[edit]
Graeco-(Armeno)-Aryan is a hypothetical clade within the Indo-European family, ancestral to the Greek language, the Armenian language, and the Indo-Iranian languages. Graeco-Aryan unity would have become divided into Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian by the mid-third millennium BC. Conceivably, Proto-Armenian would have been located between Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian, consistent with the fact that Armenian shares certain features only with Indo-Iranian (the satem change) but others only with Greek (s > h).
Graeco-Aryan has comparatively wide support among Indo-Europeanists for the Indo-European homeland to be located in the Armenian Highlands, the 'Armenian hypothesis'.[43][44][45][46] Early and strong evidence was given by Euler's 1979 examination on shared features in Greek and Sanskrit nominal flection.[47]
Used in tandem with the Graeco-Armenian hypothesis, the Armenian language would also be included under the label Aryano-Greco-Armenic, splitting into proto-Greek/Phrygian and 'Armeno-Aryan' (ancestor of Armenian and Indo-Iranian).[21][22]
Evolution[edit]
Armenian manuscript, 5th–6th century.
Classical Armenian (Arm: grabar), attested from the 5th century to the 19th century as the literary standard (up to the 11th century also as a spoken language with different varieties), was partially superseded by Middle Armenian, attested from the 12th century to the 18th century. Specialized literature prefers 'Old Armenian' for grabar as a whole, and designates as 'Classical' the language used in the 5th century literature, 'Post-Classical' from the late 5th to 8th centuries, and 'Late Grabar' that of the period covering the 8th to 11th centuries. Later, it was used mainly in religious and specialized literature, with the exception of a revival during the early modern period, when attempts were made to establish it as the language of a literary renaissance, with neoclassical inclinations, through the creation and dissemination of literature in varied genres, especially by the Mekhitarists. The first Armenian periodical, Azdarar, was published in grabar in 1794.
The classical form borrowed numerous words from Middle Iranian languages, primarily Parthian,[48] and contains smaller inventories of loanwords from Greek,[48] Syriac,[48] Arabic,[49] Mongol,[50] Persian,[51] and indigenous languages such as Urartian. An effort to modernize the language in Bagratid Armenia and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (11–14th centuries) resulted in the addition of two more characters to the alphabet ('օ' and 'ֆ'), bringing the total number to 38.[52]
The Book of Lamentations by Gregory of Narek (951–1003) is an example of the development of a literature and writing style of Old Armenian by the 10th century. In addition to elevating the literary style and vocabulary of the Armenian language by adding about well above a thousand new words,[53] through his other hymns and poems Gregory paved the way for his successors to include secular themes and vernacular language in their writings. The thematic shift from mainly religious texts to writings with secular outlooks further enhanced and enriched the vocabulary. “A Word of Wisdom”, a poem by Hovhannes Sargavak devoted to a starling, legitimizes poetry devoted to nature, love, or female beauty. Gradually, the interests of the population at large were reflected in other literary works as well. Konsdantin Yerzinkatsi and several others even take the unusual step of criticizing the ecclesiastic establishment and addressing the social issues of the Armenian homeland. However, these changes represented the nature of the literary style and syntax, but they did not constitute immense changes to the fundamentals of the grammar or the morphology of the language. Often, when writers codify a spoken dialect, other language users are then encouraged to imitate that structure through the literary device known as parallelism.[54]
The Four Gospels, 1495, Portrait of St Mark Wellcome with Armenian inscriptions
First printed Armenian language Bible, 1666
In the 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland was once again divided. This time Eastern Armenia was conquered from Qajar Iran by the Russian Empire, while Western Armenia, containing two thirds of historical Armenia, remained under Ottoman control. The antagonistic relationship between the Russian and Ottoman empires led to creation of two separate and different environments under which Armenians lived. Halfway through the 19th century, two important concentrations of Armenian communities were further consolidated.[55] Because of persecutions or the search for better economic opportunities, many Armenians living under Ottoman rule gradually moved to Constantinople, whereas Tbilisi became the center of Armenians living under Russian rule. These two cosmopolitan cities very soon became the primary poles of Armenian intellectual and cultural life.[56]
The introduction of new literary forms and styles, as well as many new ideas sweeping Europe, reached Armenians living in both regions. This created an ever-growing need to elevate the vernacular, Ashkharhabar, to the dignity of a modern literary language, in contrast to the now-anachronistic Grabar. Numerous dialects existed in the traditional Armenian regions, which, different as they were, had certain morphological and phonetic features in common. On the basis of these features two major standards emerged:
- Western standard: The influx of immigrants from different parts of the traditional Armenian homeland to Constantinople crystallized the common elements of the regional dialects, paving the way to a style of writing that required a shorter and more flexible learning curve than Grabar.
- Eastern standard: The Yerevan dialect provided the primary elements of Eastern Armenian, centered in Tbilisi, Georgia. Similar to the Western Armenian variant, the Modern Eastern was in many ways more practical and accessible to the masses than Grabar.
Both centers vigorously pursued the promotion of Ashkharhabar. The proliferation of newspapers in both versions (Eastern & Western) and the development of a network of schools where modern Armenian was taught, dramatically increased the rate of literacy (in spite of the obstacles by the colonial administrators), even in remote rural areas. The emergence of literary works entirely written in the modern versions increasingly legitimized the language's existence. By the turn of the 20th century both varieties of the one modern Armenian language prevailed over Grabar and opened the path to a new and simplified grammatical structure of the language in the two different cultural spheres. Apart from several morphological, phonetic, and grammatical differences, the largely common vocabulary and generally analogous rules of grammatical fundamentals allows users of one variant to understand the other as long as they are fluent in one of the literary standards.[57]
After World War I, the existence of the two modern versions of the same language was sanctioned even more clearly. The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990) used Eastern Armenian as its official language, whereas the diaspora created after the Armenian Genocide preserved the Western Armenian dialect.
Modern changes[edit]
Armenian language road sign.
The two modern literary dialects, Western (originally associated with writers in the Ottoman Empire) and Eastern (originally associated with writers in the Russian Empire), removed almost all of their Turkish lexical influences in the 20th century, primarily following the Armenian Genocide.[58]
Phonology[edit]
Spoken Eastern Armenian
Proto-Indo-European voiceless stop consonants are aspirated in the Proto-Armenian language, one of the circumstances that is often linked to the glottalic theory, a version of which postulated that the voiceless occlusives of Proto-Indo-European were aspirated.[59]
Stress[edit]
In Armenian, the stress falls on the last syllable unless the last syllable contains the definite article [ə] or [n], and the possessive articles ս and դ, in which case it falls on the penultimate one. For instance, [ɑχɔɾˈʒɑk], [mɑʁɑdɑˈnɔs], [ɡiˈni] but [vɑˈhɑɡən] and [ˈdɑʃtə]. Exceptions to this rule are some words with the final letter է (ե in the reformed orthography) (մի՛թէ, մի՛գուցե, ո՛րեւէ) and sometimes the ordinal numerals (վե՛ցերորդ, տա՛սներորդ, etc.), as well as նաեւ, նամանաւանդ, հիմա, այժմ, and a small number of other words.
Vowels[edit]
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Modern Armenian has six monophthongs. Each vowel phoneme in the table is represented by three symbols. The first indicates the phoneme's pronunciation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). After that appears the corresponding letter of the Armenian alphabet. The last symbol is its Latin transliteration (according to ISO 9985).
Front | Central | Back | |
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Close | /i/ ի i | /u/ ու u | |
Mid | /ɛ/ ե, է e, ē | /ə/ ը ë | /ɔ/ ո, օ o, ò |
Open | /ɑ/ ա a |
Consonants[edit]
The following table lists the Eastern Armenian consonantal system. The occlusives and affricates have a special aspirated series (mostly transcribed with an apostrophe after the letter): p’, t’, k’ (but č). Each phoneme in the table is represented by three symbols. The first indicates the phoneme's pronunciation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), after that appears the corresponding letter of the Armenian alphabet, and the last symbol is its Romanization according to ISO 9985 (1996).
Labials | Dental/ Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | /m/մ – m | /n/ն – n | [ŋ] | ||||
Stop | voiceless | /p/պ – p | /t/տ – t | /k/կ – k | |||
voiced | /b/բ – b | /d/դ – d | /ɡ/գ – g | ||||
aspirated | /pʰ/փ – p’ | /tʰ/թ – t’ | /kʰ/ք – k’ | ||||
Affricate | voiceless | /t͡s/ծ – ç | /t͡ʃ/ճ – č̣ | ||||
voiced | /d͡z/ձ – j | /d͡ʒ/ջ – ǰ | |||||
aspirated | /t͡sʰ/ց – c’ | /t͡ʃʰ/չ – č | |||||
Fricative | voiceless | /f/ֆ – f | /s/ս – s | /ʃ/շ – š | /x ~ χ/1խ – x | /h/հ – h | |
voiced | /v/վ – v | /z/զ – z | /ʒ/ժ – ž | /ɣ ~ ʁ/1ղ – ġ | |||
Approximant | [ʋ] | /l/լ – l | /j/յ – y | ||||
Trill | /r/ռ – ṙ | ||||||
Flap | /ɾ/ր – r |
- Sources differ on the place of articulation of these consonants.
The major phonetic difference between dialects is in the reflexes of Classical Armenian voice-onset time. The seven dialect types have the following correspondences, illustrated with the t–d series:[62]
Indo-European | *d | *dʰ | *t |
---|---|---|---|
Sebastia | d | dʱ | tʰ |
Yerevan | t | ||
Istanbul | d | ||
Kharberd, Middle Armenian | d | t | |
Malatya, SWA | tʰ | ||
Classical Armenian, Agulis, SEA | t | d | |
Van, Artsakh | t |
Morphology[edit]
Armenian corresponds with other Indo-European languages in its structure, but it shares distinctive sounds and features of its grammar with neighboring languages of the Caucasus region. Armenian is rich in combinations of consonants.[63][64] Both classical Armenian and the modern spoken and literary dialects have a complicated system of noun declension, with six or seven noun cases but no gender. In modern Armenian, the use of auxiliary verbs to show tense (comparable to will in 'he will go') has generally supplemented the inflected verbs of Classical Armenian. Negative verbs are conjugated differently from positive ones (as in English 'he goes' and 'he does not go') in many tenses, otherwise adding only the negative չ to the positive conjugation. Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical Greek and Latin, but the modern language, like modern Greek, has undergone many transformations, adding some analytic features.
Noun[edit]
Classical Armenian has no grammatical gender, not even in the pronoun, but there is a feminine suffix (-ուհի '-uhi'). For example, ուսուցիչ (usuts'ich, 'teacher') becomes ուսուցչուհի (usuts'chuhi, female teacher). This suffix, however, does not have a grammatical effect on the sentence. The nominal inflection, however, preserves several types of inherited stem classes. Nouns are declined for one of seven cases: nominative (ուղղական uxxakan), accusative (հայցական hayc'akan), locative (ներգոյական nergoyakan), genitive (սեռական seṙakan), dative (տրական trakan), ablative (բացառական bac'aṙakan), or instrumental (գործիական gorciakan).
- Examples of noun declension in Eastern Armenian
Case | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
Nominative | հեռախոս(ը-ն)* heṙaxos(ë-n)* | հեռախոսներ(ը-ն)* heṙaxosner(ë-n)* |
Accusative | հեռախոսը(-ն)* heṙaxosë(-n)* | հեռախոսները(-ն)* heṙaxosnerë(-n)* |
Genitive | հեռախոսի heṙaxosi | հեռախոսների heṙaxosneri |
Dative | հեռախոսին heṙaxosin | հեռախոսներին heṙaxosnerin |
Ablative | հեռախոսից heṙaxosic' | հեռախոսներից heṙaxosneric' |
Instrumental | հեռախոսով heṙaxosov | հեռախոսներով heṙaxosnerov |
Locative | հեռախոսում heṙaxosum | հեռախոսներում heṙaxosnerum |
Case | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
Nominative | մայր(ը-ն)* mayr(ë-n)* | մայրեր(ը-ն)* mayrer(ë-n)* |
Accusative | մայրը(-ն)* mayrë(-n)* | մայրերը(-ն)* mayrerë(-n)* |
Genitive | մոր mor | մայրերի mayreri |
Dative | մորը(-ն)* morë(-n)* | մայրերին mayrerin |
Ablative | մորից moric' | մայրերից mayreric' |
Instrumental | մորով morov | մայրերով mayrerov |
Animate nouns do not decline for locative case.
Case | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
Nominative | հանրապետություն(ը-ն)* hanrapetut'yun(ë-n)* | հանրապետություններ(ը-ն)* hanrapetut'yunner(ë-n)* |
Accusative | հանրապետությունը(-ն)* hanrapetut'yunë(-n)* | հանրապետությունները(-ն)* hanrapetut'yunnerë(-n)* |
Genitive | հանրապետության hanrapetut'yan | հանրապետությունների hanrapetut'yunneri |
Dative | հանրապետությանը(-ն)* hanrapetut'yanë(-n)* | հանրապետություններին hanrapetut'yunnerin |
Ablative | հանրապետությունից hanrapetut'yunic' | հանրապետություններից hanrapetut'yunneric' |
Instrumental | հանրապետությամբ hanrapetut'yamb | հանրապետություններով hanrapetut'yunnerov |
Locative | հանրապետությունում hanrapetut'yunum | հանրապետություններում hanrapetut'yunnerum |
- Examples of noun declension in Western Armenian
դաշտ / tašd (field) | կով / gov (cow) | |||
singular | plural | singular | plural | |
Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական) | դաշտ / tašd | դաշտեր / tašder | կով / gov | կովեր / gover |
Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական) | դաշտի / tašdi | դաշտերու / tašderu | կովու / govu | կովերու / goveru |
Abl (Բացառական) | դաշտէ / tašde | դաշտերէ / tašdere | կովէ / gove | կովերէ / govere |
Instr (Գործիական) | դաշտով / tašdov | դաշտերով / tašderov | կովով / govov | կովերով / goverov |
գարուն / karun (Spring) | օր / or (day) | Քոյր / kuyr (sister) | ||||
singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |
Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական) | գարուն karun | գարուններ karunner | օր or | օրեր orer | քոյր kuyr | քոյրեր kuyrer |
Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական) | գարնան karnan | գարուններու karunneru | օրուայ oruay | օրերու oreru | քրոջ kroč | քոյրերու kuyreru |
Abl (Բացառական) | գարունէ karune | գարուններէ karunnere | օրուընէ oruəne | օրերէ orere | քրոջմէ kročme | քոյրերէ kuyrere |
Instr (Գործիական) | գարունով karunov | գարուններով karunnerov | օրով orov | օրերով orerov | քրոջմով kročmov | քոյրերով kuyrerov |
հայր / hayr (father) | Աստուած / Asdvadz (God) | գիտութիւն / kidutiun (science) | ||||
singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |
Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական) | հայր hayr | հայրեր hayrer | Աստուած Asdvadz | աստուածներ asdvadzner | գիտութիւն kidutiun | գիտութիւններ kidutiunner |
Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական) | հոր hor | հայրերու hayreru | Աստուծոյ Asdudzuy | աստուածներու asdvadzneru | գիտութեան kidutean | գիտութիւններու kidutiunneru |
Abl (Բացառական) | հորմէ horme | հայրերէ hayrere | Աստուծմէ Asdudzme | աստուածներէ asdvadznere | գիտութենէ kidutene | գիտութիւններէ kidutiunnere |
Instr (Գործիական) | հորմով hormov | հայրերով hayrerov | Աստուծմով Asdudzmov | աստուածներով asdvadznerov | գիտութեամբ / գիտութիւնով kiduteamp / kidutiunov | գիտութիւններով kidutiunnerov |
Verb[edit]
Verbs in Armenian have an expansive system of conjugation with two main verb types in Eastern Armenian and three in Western Armenian changing form based on tense, mood and aspect.
Dialects[edit]
Map of the Armenian dialects in early 20th century: -owm dialects, nearly corresponding to Eastern Armenian
-gë dialects, nearly corresponding to Western Armenian
Armenian is a pluricentric language, having two modern standardized forms: Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. The most distinctive feature of Western Armenian is that it has undergone several phonetic mergers; these may be due to proximity to Arabic- and Turkish-speaking communities.
For example, Eastern Armenian speakers pronounce (թ) as [tʰ], (դ) as [d], and (տ) as a tenuis occlusive [t˭]. Western Armenian has simplified the occlusive system into a simple division between voiced occlusives and aspirated ones; the first series corresponds to the tenuis series of Eastern Armenian, and the second corresponds to the Eastern voiced and aspirated series. Thus, the Western dialect pronounces both (թ) and (դ) as [tʰ], and the (տ) letter as [d].
There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects.
Armenian can be divided into two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects, though many of the Western Armenian dialects have become extinct due to the effects of the Armenian Genocide. In addition, neither dialect is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several subdialects. Although Western and Eastern Armenian are often described as different dialects of the same language, many subdialects are not readily mutually intelligible. Nevertheless, a fluent speaker of one of two greatly varying dialects who is also literate in one of the standards, when exposed to the other dialect for a period of time will be able to understand the other with relative ease.
Distinct Western Armenian varieties currently in use include Homshetsi, spoken by the Hemshin people;[65] the dialects of Armenians of Kessab (Քեսապի բարբառ), Latakia and Jisr al-Shughur (Syria), Anjar, Lebanon, and Vakıflı, Samandağ (Turkey), part of the 'Sueidia' dialect (Սուէտիայի բարբառ).
Forms of the Karin dialect of Western Armenian are spoken by several hundred thousand people in Northern Armenia, mostly in Gyumri, Artik, Akhuryan, and around 130 villages in Shirak Province,[66] and by Armenians in Samtskhe-Javakheti province of Georgia (Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe).[67]
Nakhichevan-on-Don Armenians speak another Western Armenian variety based on the dialect of Armenians in Crimea, where they came from in order to establish the town and surrounding villages in 1779 (Նոր Նախիջևանի բարբառ).
Western Armenian dialects are currently spoken also in Gavar (formerly Nor Bayazet and Kamo, on the west of Lake Sevan), Aparan, and Talin in Armenia (Mush dialect), and by the large Armenian population residing in Abkhazia, where they are considered to be the first or second ethnic minority, or even equal in number to the local Abkhaz population[68]
English | Eastern Armenian | Western Armenian |
---|---|---|
Yes | Ayo (այո) | Ayo (այո) |
No | Voč' (ոչ) | Voč' (ոչ) |
I see you | K'ez em tesnum (քեզ եմ տեսնում) | Gdesnem kez(i) (կը տեսնեմ քեզ(ի)) |
Hello | Barev (բարև) | Parev (բարեւ) |
I'm going | Gnum em (գնում եմ) | Gertam (gor) (կ՚երթամ (կոր)) |
Come! | Ari! (արի՛) | Yegur! (եկո՛ւր) |
I will eat | Utelu em (ուտելու եմ) | Bidi udem (պիտի ուտեմ) |
I must do | Piti anem (պիտի անեմ) | Enelu em (ընելու եմ) |
I was going to eat | Utelu ei (ուտելու էի) | Bidi udei (պիտի ուտէի) |
Is this yours? | Sa k'onn e? (սա քո՞նն է) | Asiga k'ugt e? (ասիկա քո՞ւկդ է) |
His grandma | Nra tatikə (նրա տատիկը) | Anor nenen/mecmaman (անոր նէնէն/մեծմաման) |
Look at that one! | Dran nayir (դրան նայիր) | Ador naye (ատոր նայէ) |
Have you brought these? | Du es berel sranc'? (դո՞ւ ես բերել սրանց) | Tun perir asonk? (դո՞ւն բերիր ասոնք) |
How are you? I'm OK. | Vonc' es? Voč'inč' (Ո՞նց ես։ Ոչինչ։) | Inč'bes es? Lav (Ինչպէ՞ս ես։ Լաւ։) |
Did you say it? Say it! | Asac'ir? Asa! (Ասացի՞ր։ Ասա՛։) | əsir? əse! (Ըսի՞ր։ Ըսէ՛։) |
Have you taken it from us? | Mezanic' es arel? (մեզանի՞ց ես առել) | Mezme arac es? (մեզմէ՞ առած ես) |
Good morning | Bari louys (բարի լույս) | Pari louys (բարի լոյս) |
Good evening | Bari yereko (բարի երեկո) | Pari irigoun (բարի իրիկուն) |
Good night | Bari gišer (բարի գիշեր) | Kišer pari (գիշեր բարի) |
You love me | Siroum es inc' (սիրում ես ինձ) | Zis gë sires (զիս կը սիրես) |
I am Armenian | Yes hay em (ես հայ եմ) | Yes hay em (ես հայ եմ) |
I missed you | Karotel em k'ez (կարոտել եմ քեզ) | K'ez garodtser em (քեզ կարօտցեր եմ) |
Orthography[edit]
Armenian keyboard layout using the Armenian alphabet.
The Armenian alphabet (Armenian: Հայոց գրեր, romanized: Hayots grer or Armenian: Հայոց այբուբեն, romanized: Hayots aybuben) is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that is used to write the Armenian language. It was introduced around AD 405 by Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, and originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters, օ (o) and ֆ (f), were added in the Middle Ages. During the 1920s orthography reform in Soviet Armenia, a new letter և (capital ԵՎ) was added, which was a ligature before ե+ւ, whereas the letter Ւ ւ was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter ՈՒ ու (which was a digraph before). This alphabet and associated orthography is used by most Armenian speakers of the Republic of Armenia and the countries of the former Soviet Union. Neither the alphabet nor the orthography has been adopted by Diaspora Armenians, including Eastern Armenian speakers of Iran and all Western Armenian speakers, who keep using the traditional alphabet and spelling.
Indo-European cognates[edit]
Armenian is an Indo-European language, so many of its Proto-Indo-European-descended words are cognates of words in other Indo-European languages such as English, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. This table lists only some of the more recognizable cognates that Armenian shares with English (more specifically, with English words descended from Old English). (Source: Online Etymology Dictionary.[69])
Armenian | English | Latin | Persian | Classical and Hellenistic Greek | Sanskrit | Russian | Old Irish | PIE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
մայր mayr 'mother' | mother ( ← OEmōdor) | māter 'mother' | مادر mɒdær 'mother' | μήτηρ mētēr 'mother' | मातृ mātṛ 'mother' | мать mat' | máthair 'mother' | *máH₂ter- 'mother' |
հայր hayr 'father' | father ( ← OEfæder) | pater 'father' | پدر pedær 'father' | πατήρ patēr 'father' | पितृ pitṛ 'father' | папа papa | athair 'father' | *pH₂tér- 'father' |
եղբայր eġbayr 'brother' | brother ( ← OEbrōþor) | frāter 'brother' | برادر bærɒdær 'brother' | φράτηρ phrātēr 'brother' | भ्रातृ bhrātṛ 'brother' | брат brat | bráthair 'brother' | *bʱráH₂ter- 'brother' |
դուստր dustr 'daughter' | daughter ( ← OEdohtor) | (Oscan futrei 'daughter') | دختر doxtær 'daughter' | θυγάτηρ thugatēr 'daughter' | दुहितृ duhitṛ 'daughter' | дочь doč' | der, Dar- 'daughter (of)' | *dʱugH₂-tér- 'daughter' |
կին kin 'woman' | queen ( ← OEcwēn 'queen, woman, wife') | کیانه kianæ 'woman, wife' | γυνή gunē 'a woman, a wife' | ग्ना gnā/ जनि jani 'woman' | жена žena 'wife' | ben 'woman' | *gʷén-eH₂- 'woman, wife' | |
իմ im 'my' | my, mine ( ← OEmin) | me-us, -a, -um etc. 'my' | من/ـم mæn/æm 'my' | ἐμ-ός, -ή, -όν em-os, -ē, -on etc. 'my, of mine' | मम mama 'my' | мой moy | mo 'my, me' | *mene- 'my, mine' |
անուն anun 'name' | name ( ← OEnama) | nōmen 'name' | نام nɒm 'name' | ὄνομα onoma 'name' | नामन् nāman 'name' | имя im'a | ainm 'name' | *H₁noH₃m-n̥- 'name' |
ութ utʿ '8' | eight ( ← OEeahta) | octō 'eight' | هشت hæʃt 'eight' | ὀκτώ oktō 'eight' | अष्ट aṣṭa 'eight' | во́семь vosem' | ocht 'eight' | *H₁oḱtō(u) 'eight' |
ինն inn '9' | nine ( ← OEnigon) | novem 'nine' | نه noh 'nine' | ἐννέα ennea 'nine' | नवन् navan 'nine' | де́вять dev'at' | noí 'nine' | *(H₁)néwn̥ 'nine' |
տաս tas '10' | ten ( ← OEtien) ( ← P.Gmc.*tekhan) | decem 'ten' | ده dæh 'ten' | δέκα deka 'ten' | दश daśa 'ten' | де́сять des'at' | deich 'ten' | *déḱm̥ 'ten' |
աչք ačʿkʿ 'eye' | eye ( ← OEēge) | oculus 'eye' | ὀφθαλμός ophthalmos 'eye' | अक्षि akṣi 'eye' | око oko | *H₃okʷ- 'to see' | ||
արմունկ armunk 'elbow' | arm ( ← OEearm 'joined body parts below shoulder') | armus 'shoulder' | آرنج ɒrendʒ 'elbow' | ἄρθρον arthron 'a joint' | ईर्म īrma 'arm' | рамо ramo 'shoulder' (archaic) | *H₁ar-mo- 'fit, join (that which is fitted together)' | |
ծունկ cunk[70] 'knee' | knee ( ← OEcnēo) | genū 'knee' | زانو zɒnu 'knee' | γόνυ gonu 'knee' | जानु jānu 'knee' | glún 'knee' | *ǵénu- 'knee' | |
ոտք otkʿ 'foot' | foot ( ← OEfōt) | pedis 'foot' | پا، پای pɒ, pɒj 'foot' | πούς pous 'foot' | पाद् pād 'foot' | пята p'ata 'heel' | (Gaul. ades 'feet') | *pod-, *ped- 'foot' |
սիրտ sirt 'heart' | heart ( ← OEheorte) | cor 'heart' | دل del 'heart' | καρδία kardia 'heart' | हृदय hṛdaya 'heart' | се́рдце serdce | cride 'heart' | *ḱerd- 'heart' |
կաշի kaši 'skin' | hide ( ← OEhȳdan 'animal skin cover') | cutis 'skin' | پوست pust 'skin' | κεύθω keuthō 'I cover, I hide' | कुटीर kuṭīra 'hut' | кожа koža | (Welsh cudd 'hiding place') | *keu- 'to cover, conceal' |
մուկ muk 'mouse' | mouse ( ← OEmūs) | mūs 'mouse' | موش musc 'mouse' | μῦς mūs 'mouse' | मूष् mūṣ 'mouse' | мышь myš' | *muH₁s- 'mouse, small rodent' | |
կով kov 'cow' | cow ( ← OEcū) | bos 'cow' | گاو gɒv 'cow' | βοῦς bous 'cow' | गो go 'cow' | говядина gov'adina 'beef' | bó 'cow' | *gʷou- 'cow' |
շուն šun 'dog' | hound ( ← OEhund 'hound, dog') | canis 'hound, dog' | سگ sæg 'dog' | κύων kuōn 'hound, dog' | श्वन् śvan 'dog' | сука suka 'bitch' | cú 'dog' | *ḱwon- 'hound, dog' |
տարի tari 'year' | year ( ← OEgēar) | hōrnus 'of this year' | یاره، سال jɒre, sɒl[71] 'year' | ὥρα hōra 'time, year' | यरे yare[71] 'year' | яра jara 'springtime' (archaic) | *yeH₁r- 'year' | |
ամիս amis 'month' | moon, month ( ← OEmōnaþ) | mēnsis 'month' | ماه mɒh 'moon, month' | μήν mēn 'moon, month' | मास māsa 'moon, month' | месяц mes'ac | mí 'month' | *meH₁ns- 'moon, month' |
ամառ amaṙ 'summer' | summer ( ← OEsumor) | समा samā 'season' | saṃ 'summer' *sem- 'hot season of the year' | |||||
ջերմ ǰerm 'warm' | warm ( ← OEwearm) | formus 'warm' | گرم gærm 'warm' | θερμός thermos 'warm' | घर्म gharma 'heat' | жарко žarko 'hot' | geirid 'warm (v)' | *gʷʰerm- 'warm' |
լույս luys 'light' | light ( ← OElēoht 'brightness') | lux 'light' | روز ruz 'day' | λευκός leukos 'bright, shining, white' | लोक loka 'shining' | луч luč' 'beam' | lóch 'bright' | *leuk- 'light, brightness' |
հուր hur 'flame' | fire ( ← OEfȳr) | (Umbrian pir 'fire') | آذر، آدور ɒzær, ɒdur 'fire' | πῦρ pur 'fire' | पु pu 'fire' | *péH₂wr̥- 'fire' | ||
հեռու heṙu 'far' | far ( ← OEfeor 'to a great distance') | per 'through' | فرا færɒ 'beyond' | πέρα pera 'beyond' | परस् paras 'beyond' | пере- pere-, про- pro- | ír 'further' | *per- 'through, across, beyond' |
հեղել heġel 'to pour' | flow ( ← OEflōwan) | pluĕre 'to rain' | پور pur 'pour' | πλύνω plunō 'I wash' | प्लु plu 'to swim' | плавать plavat' 'swim' | luí 'rudder' | *pleu- 'flow, float' |
ուտել utel 'to eat' | eat ( ← OEetan) | edō 'I eat' | هور hvor 'eat' | ἔδω edō 'I eat' | अद्मि admi 'I eat' | есть jest' | ithid 'eat' | *ed- 'to eat' |
գիտեմ gitem 'I know' | wit ( ← OEwit, witan 'intelligence, to know') | vidēre 'to see' | ویده vidæ 'knowledge' | εἰδέναι eidenai 'to know' | विद् vid 'to know' | видеть videt' 'see, understand' | adfet 'tells' | *weid- 'to know, to see' |
գետ get 'river' | water ( ← OEwæter) | (Umbrian utur 'water') | رود rud 'river' | ὕδωρ hudōr 'water' | उदन् udan 'water' | вода voda | uisce 'water' | (*wodor, *wedor, *uder-) from *wed- 'water' |
գործ gorc[70] 'work ' | work ( ← OEweorc) | urgēre 'push, drive' | کار kɒr 'work' | ἔργον ergon 'work' | वर्चस् varcas 'activity' | *werǵ- 'to work' | ||
մեծ mec[70] 'great ' | much ( ← OEmycel 'great, big, many') | magnus 'great' | مه، مهست meh, mæhest 'great, large' | μέγας megas 'great, large' | महति mahati 'great' | много mnogo 'many' | maige 'great, mighty' | *meǵ- 'great' |
անծանոթ ancanotʿ[70] 'stranger, unfamiliar' | unknown[72] ( ← OEuncnawen) | ignōtus[72] 'unknown' | ἄγνωστος agnōstos[72] 'unknown' | अज्ञात ajñāta[72] 'unfamiliar' | незнакомый neznakomyj | *n- + *ǵneH₃- 'not' + 'to know' | ||
մեռած meṙac 'dead' | murder ( ← OEmorþor) | mors 'death' | مرگ mærg 'death' / مرده morde 'dead' | βροτός brotos 'mortal' | मृत mṛta 'dead' | смерть smert' 'death' | marb 'dead' | *mrtro-, from (*mor-, *mr-) 'to die' |
միջին miǰin 'middle' | mid, middle ( ← OEmid, middel) | medius 'middle' | میان miɒn 'middle' | μέσος mesos 'middle' | मध्य madhya 'middle' | между meždu 'between' | mide 'middle' | *medʱyo- from *me- 'mid, middle' |
այլ ayl 'other' | else ( ← OEelles 'other, otherwise, different') | alius 'other' | ἄλλος allos 'other, another' | अन्य anya 'other' | иной inoj | aile 'other' | *al- 'beyond, other' | |
նոր nor 'new' | new ( ← OEnīwe) | novus 'new' | نو now 'new' | νέος neos 'new' | नव nava 'new' | новый novyj | núae 'new' | *néwo- 'new' |
դուռ duṙ 'door' | door ( ← OEdor, duru) | fores 'door' | در dær 'door' | θύρα thurā 'door' | द्वार dvāra 'door' | дверь dver' | dorus 'door' | *dʱwer- 'door, doorway, gate' |
տուն tun 'house' | timber ( ← OEtimber 'trees used for building material, structure') | domus 'house' | مان، خانه mɒn, xɒne 'home' | δόμος domos 'house' | दम dama 'house' | дом dom | dún 'fort' (Welsh dinas 'city') | *domo-, *domu- 'house' |
բերրի berri, berel 'fertile, to carry' | bear ( ← OEberan 'give birth, carry') | ferre 'to bear' | بردن، برـ bordæn, bær- 'to bear, carry' | φέρειν pherein 'to bear, carry' | भरति bharati 'he/she/it carries' | брать brat' 'to take' | beirid 'carry' | *bʱer- 'to bear, to carry' |
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^Armenian has no legal status in Samtske-Javakheti, but it is widely spoken by its Armenian population, which is concentrated in Ninotsminda and Akhalkalaki districts (over 90% of the total population in these two districts).[10] There were 144 state-funded schools in the region as of 2010 where Armenian is the main language of instruction.[11][12]
- ^The Lebanese government recognizes Armenian as a minority language,[13] particularly for educational purposes.[14][15]
- ^In education, according to the Treaty of Lausanne[16][17]
Footnotes[edit]
- ^'Armenian language'. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
- ^Eastern Armenian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Western Armenian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Classical Armenian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Middle Armenian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) - ^'Implementation of the Charter in Cyprus'. Database for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Public Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research. Archived from the original on 24 October 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
- ^'Implementation of the Charter in Hungary'. Database for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Public Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
- ^'Iraqi Constitution: Article 4'(PDF). The Republic of Iraq Ministry of Interior General Directorate for Nationality. Archived from the original(PDF) on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
The right of Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Syriac, and Armenian shall be guaranteed in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines, or in any other language in private educational institutions.
- ^https://news.am/eng/news/244068.html
- ^'Territorial languages in the Republic of Poland'(PDF). Strasbourg: European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. 30 September 2010. p. 9. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
- ^'Implementation of the Charter in Romania'. Database for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Public Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
- ^'Law of Ukraine 'On Principles of State Language Policy' (Current version – Revision from 01.02.2014)'. Document 5029-17, Article 7: Regional or minority languages Ukraine, Paragraph 2. rada.gov.ua. 1 February 2014. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
- ^Hille, Charlotte (2010). State Building and Conflict Resolution in the Caucasus. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. p. 241. ISBN9789004179011.
- ^'Javakhk Armenians Looks Ahead to Local Elections'. Asbarez. 31 March 2010. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Javakheti for use in the region's 144 Armenian schools ...
- ^Mezhdoyan, Slava (28 November 2012). 'Challenges and problems of the Armenian community of Georgia'(PDF). Tbilisi: European Armenian Federation for Justice and Democracy. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Armenian schools in Georgia are fully funded by the government ...
- ^'About Lebanon'. Central Administration of Statistics of the Republic of Lebanon. Archived from the original on 26 May 2014.
Other Languages: French, English and Armenian
- ^'Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties Under Article 44 of the Convention. Third periodic reports of states parties due in 2003: Lebanon'(PDF). Committee on the Rights of the Child. 25 October 2005. p. 108. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Right of minorities to learn their language. The Lebanese curriculum allows Armenian schools to teach the Armenian language as a basic language.
- ^Sanjian, Ara. 'Armenians and the 2000 Parliamentary Elections in Lebanon'. Armenian News Network / Groong. University of Southern California. Archived from the original on 26 May 2014.
Moreover, the Lebanese government approved a plan whereby the Armenian language was to be considered from now on as one of the few 'second foreign languages' that students can take as part of the official Lebanese secondary school certificate (Baccalaureate) exams.
- ^Saib, Jilali (2001). 'Languages in Turkey'. In Extra, Guus; Gorter, Durk (eds.). The Other Languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters. p. 423. ISBN9781853595097.
No other language can be taught as a mother language other than Armenian, Greek and Hebrew, as agreed in the Lausanne Treaty ...
- ^Okçabol, Rıfat (2008). 'Secondary Education in Turkey'. In Nohl, Arnd-Michael; Akkoyunlu-Wigley, Arzu; Wigley, Simon (eds.). Education in Turkey. Berlin: Waxmann Verlag. p. 65. ISBN9783830970699.
Private Minority Schools are the school established by Greek, Armenian and Hebrew minorities during the era of the Ottoman Empire and covered by Lausanne Treaty.
- ^'H. Acharian Institute of Language'. sci.am. Archived from the original on 5 October 2014.
Main Fields of Activity: investigation of the structure and functioning, history and comparative grammar of the Armenian language, exploration of the literary Eastern and Western Armenian Language, dialectology, regulation of literary language, development of terminology
- ^Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). 'Armenic'. Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^Armenian language – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- ^ abHandbook of Formal Languages (1997) p. 6.
- ^ abIndo-European tree with Armeno-Aryan, exclusion of Greek
- ^Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, Benjamin W. Fortson, John Wiley and Sons, 2009, p383.
- ^Hans J. Holm (2011): “Swadesh lists” of Albanian Revisited and Consequences for its position in the Indo-European Languages. The Journal of Indo-European Studies, Volume 39, Number 1&2.
- ^Hrach Martirosyan. The place of Armenian in the Indo-European language family: the relationship with Greek and Indo-Iranian. Journal of Language Relationship • Вопросы языкового родства • 10 (2013) • Pp. 85—137
- ^Kim, Ronald (2018). 'Greco-Armenian: The persistence of a myth'. The University of British Columbia Library. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
- ^Strabo, Geographica, XI, 14, 5; Հայոց լեզվի համառոտ պատմություն, Ս. Ղ. Ղազարյան։ Երևան, 1981, էջ 33 (Concise History of Armenian Language, S. Gh. Ghazaryan. Yerevan, 1981, p. 33).
- ^Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010). Historical Dictionary of Armenia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. 396. ISBN978-0-8108-7450-3.
Although mutually intelligible, eastern Armenian preserved classical phonology, whereas western Armenian demonstrated sound loss among closely related consonants.
- ^Baliozian, Ara (1975). The Armenians: Their History and Culture. Kar Publishing House. p. 65.
There are two main dialects: Eastern Armenian (Soviet Armenia, Persia), and Western Armenian (Middle East, Europe, and America) . They are mutually intelligible.
- ^Campbell, George (2003). 'Armenian, Modern Standard'. Concise Compendium of the World's Languages. Routledge. p. 33. ISBN9781134720279.
This second form is known as Western Armenian; Eastern Armenian is the written and spoken language used in the CIS. The two forms are mutually intelligible, indeed very close to each other.
- ^Sanjian, Avedis K. (1996). 'The Armenian Alphabet'. In Daniels, Peter T.; Bight, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 356. ISBN9780195079937.
...Classical (Grabar), Middle, and Modern: two mutually intelligible literary dialects, East and West Armenian.
- ^'Armenia as Xenophon Saw It', p. 47, A History of Armenia. Vahan Kurkjian, 2008
- ^Austin, William M. (January–March 1942). 'Is Armenian an Anatolian Language?'. Language. Linguistic Society of America. 18 (1): 22–25. doi:10.2307/409074. JSTOR409074.
- ^Martirosyan, Hrach (2015), 'Notes on Anatolian loanwords in Armenian'(PDF), St. Petersburg, Institute for linguistic studies, Russian Academy of sciences, Russia
- ^Diakonoff, I. M. (1985). 'Hurro-Urartian Borrowings in Old Armenian'. Journal of the American Oriental Society. New Haven. 105 (4): 597–603. doi:10.2307/602722. ISSN0003-0279. JSTOR602722. OCLC6015257905.
- ^ ab'ARMENIA AND IRAN iv. Iranian influences in Armenian Language'. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^'A Reader in Nineteenth Century Historical Indo-European Linguistics: On the Position of Armenian in the Sphere of the Indo-European Languages'. Utexas.edu. 2007-03-20. Archived from the original on 2012-04-30. Retrieved 2012-12-18.
- ^Kim, Ronald (2018). 'Greco-Armenian: The persistence of a myth'. The University of British Columbia Library. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
- ^James Clackson (1995). The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek. Publications of the Philological Society.
- ^Vavroušek P. (2010). 'Frýžština'. Jazyky starého Orientu. Praha: Univerzita Karlova v Praze. p. 129. ISBN978-80-7308-312-0.
- ^J. P. Mallory, Douglas Q. Adams. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 419. ISBN9781884964985.
- ^Brixhe C. (2008). 'Phrygian'. The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 72.
- ^Renfrew, A.C., 1987, Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins, London: Pimlico. ISBN0-7126-6612-5; T. V. Gamkrelidze and V. V. Ivanov, The Early History of Indo-European Languages, Scientific American, March 1990; Renfrew, Colin (2003). 'Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European'. Languages in Prehistoric Europe. ISBN3-8253-1449-9.
- ^'Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin, Nature 426 (27 November 2003) 435-439'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2015.
- ^Mallory, James P. (1997). 'Kuro-Araxes Culture'. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Fitzroy Dearborn: 341–42.
- ^A. Bammesberger in The Cambridge History of the English Language, 1992, ISBN978-0-521-26474-7, p. 32: the model 'still remains the background of much creative work in Indo-European reconstruction' even though it is 'by no means uniformly accepted by all scholars'.
- ^Indoiranisch-griechische Gemeinsamkeiten der Nominalbildung und deren indogermanische Grundlagen (= Aryan-Greek Communities in Nominal Morphology and their Indoeuropean Origins; in German) (282 p.), Innsbruck, 1979
- ^ abcHurro-Urartian Borrowings in Old Armenian, I. M. Diakonoff, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 105, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1985), 597.
- ^How Did New Persian and Arabic Words Penetrate the Middle Armenian Vocabulary? Remarks on the Material of Kostandin Erznkac'i's Poetry, Andrzej Pisowicz, New Approaches to Medieval Armenian Language and Literature, edited by Joseph Johannes Sicco Weitenberg, (Rodopi B.V., 1995), 96.
- ^Tangsux in Armenia, E. SCHÜTZ, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1964), 106.
- ^Razmik Panossian, The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars, (Columbia University Press, 2006), 39.
- ^Ouzounian, Nourhan (2000). Hacikyan, Agop Jack; Basmajian, Gabriel; Franchuk, Edward S.; et al. (eds.). The heritage of Armenian literature. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press. p. 88. ISBN0814328156.
- ^Mirzoyan, H. (2005). 'Նարեկացու բառաշխարհը' [Narekatsi's World of Words]. Banber Erewani Hamalsarani (in Armenian). 1 (115): 85–114.
- ^Švejcer, Aleksandr D. (1986). Contemporary Sociolinguistics: Theory, Problems, Methods. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 70. ISBN9027215189.
- ^Khachaturian, Lisa (2009). Cultivating nationhood in imperial Russia the periodical press and the formation of a modern Armenian identity. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. p. 1. ISBN1412813727.
- ^Krikor Beledian (2014). Berghaus, Günter (ed.). International Yearbook of Futurism. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 264. ISBN3110334100.
- ^Waters, Bella (2009). Armenia in pictures. Minneapolis: VGS/Twenty-First Century Books. p. 48. ISBN0822585766.
- ^Cobarrubias, Juan; Fishman, Joshua A. (1983). Progress in language planning: International Perspectives. Berlin: Mouton Publishers. pp. 315, 319. ISBN902793388X.
- ^James Clackson, Indo-European Linguistics, An Introduction (2007, Cambridge)
Robert S.P. Beekes, Comparative Indo-European Linguistics, An Introduction (1995, John Benjamins)
Oswald J.L. Szemerényi, Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics (1996, Oxford) - ^Dum-Tragut (2009:13)
- ^Dum-Tragut (2009:17–20)
- ^Price (1998)
- ^Kortmann, Bernd; van der Auwera, Johan (2011). The Languages and Linguistics of Europe: A Comprehensive Guide. Walter de Gruyter. p. 129. ISBN978-3110220261.
- ^The New Armenia, Vol. 11-12. New Armenia Publishing Company. 1919. p. 160. ISBN1248372786.
- ^Victor A. Friedman (2009). 'Sociolinguistics in the Caucasus'. In Ball, Martin J. (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Sociolinguistics Around the World: A Handbook. Routledge. p. 128. ISBN978-0415422789.
- ^Baghdassarian-Thapaltsian, S. H. (1970). Շիրակի դաշտավայրի բարբառային նկարագիրը. Լրաբեր հասարակական գիտությունների (Bulletin of Social Sciences) (in Armenian) (6): 51–60. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
- ^Hovannisian, Richard, ed. (2003). Armenian Karin/Erzerum. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publ. p. 48. ISBN9781568591513.
Thus, even today the Erzerum dialect is widely spoken in the northernmost districts of the Armenian republic as well as in the Akhalkalak (Javakheti; Javakhk) and Akhaltskha (Akhaltsikh) districts of southern Georgia
- ^Islam Tekushev (5 January 2016). 'An unlikely home'. openDemocracy. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
- ^'Online Etymology Dictionary'. etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-07.
- ^ abcdThe letter ⟨c⟩ represents /ts/. In the Armenian words cunk, gorc, mec, and ancanotʿ, it corresponds to PIE *ǵ-.
- ^ abThe word 'yare' (year) in the Persian and Sanskrit columns is actually from an Indo-Iranian sister language called Avestan.
- ^ abcdThe prefix for 'not' in English is 'un-', 'i(n)-' in Latin, 'a(n)- or nē-' in Greek and 'a(n)-' in Sanskrit, which correspond to the PIE *n-.
References[edit]
- Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company
- Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004), Indo-European Language and Culture, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
- Hübschmann, Heinrich (1875), 'Über die Stellung des armenischen im Kreise der indogermanischen Sprachen', Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung, 23: 5–42, archived from the original on 2005-12-21
- Price, G. (1998), Encyclopedia of European languages, Oxford University Press
Further reading[edit]
- Adjarian, Herchyah H. (1909) Classification des dialectes arméniens, par H. Adjarian. Paris: Honoro Champion.
- Clackson, James. 1994. The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek. London: Publications of the Philological Society, No 30. (and Oxford: Blackwell Publishing)
- Holst, Jan Henrik (2009) Armenische Studien. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Mallory, J. P. (1989) In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London: Thames & Hudson.
- Vaux, Bert. 1998. The Phonology of Armenian. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Vaux, Bert. 2002. 'The Armenian dialect of Jerusalem.' in Armenians in the Holy Land. 'Louvain: Peters.
External links[edit]
Armenian edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |
Armenian edition of Wikisource, the free library |
- Armenian Lessons (free online through the Linguistics Research Center at UT Austin)
- Armenian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)
- Nayiri.com (Library of Armenian dictionaries)
- dictionaries.arnet.am Collection of Armenian XDXF and Stardict dictionaries
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armenian_language&oldid=901979920'
Mount Ararat | |
---|---|
Little Ararat (left) and Greater Ararat (right); View from Yerevan, Armenia | |
Highest point | |
Elevation | 5,137 m (16,854 ft) See Elevation section |
Prominence | 3,611 m (11,847 ft) [1] Ranked 48th |
Isolation | 379 kilometres (235 mi) |
Listing | Country high point Ultra Volcanic Seven Second Summits |
Coordinates | 39°42.113′N44°17.899′E / 39.701883°N 44.298317°ECoordinates: 39°42.113′N44°17.899′E / 39.701883°N 44.298317°E[2] |
Geography | |
Location in Turkey | |
Location | Iğdır and Ağrı provinces, Turkey |
Parent range | Armenian Highlands |
Geology | |
Mountain type | Stratovolcano |
Last eruption | July 2, 1840 |
Climbing | |
First ascent | 9 October [O.S. 27 September] 1829 Friedrich Parrot, Khachatur Abovian, two Russian soldiers, two Armenian villagers |
Designations | |
---|---|
Official name | Ağrı Dağı Milli Parkı |
Designated | 1 November 2004[3] |
Mount Ararat (/ˈærəˌræt/ARR-ə-rat;[4]Turkish: Ağrı Dağı; Armenian: Մասիս, Masis and Արարատ, Ararat) is a snow-capped and dormant compound volcano in the extreme east of Turkey. It consists of two major volcanic cones: Greater Ararat and Little Ararat. Greater Ararat is the highest peak in Turkey and the Armenian plateau with an elevation of 5,137 m (16,854 ft); Little Ararat's elevation is 3,896 m (12,782 ft).[5] The Ararat massif is about 35 km (22 mi) wide at ground base.[6] The first efforts to reach Ararat's summit were made in the Middle Ages. However, it was not until 1829 when Friedrich Parrot and Khachatur Abovian, accompanied by four others, made the first recorded ascent.
Despite the scholarly consensus that the 'mountains of Ararat' of the Book of Genesis (8:4) do not refer specifically to Mt. Ararat, it has been widely accepted in Christianity as the resting place of Noah's Ark. It is the principal national symbol of Armenia and has been considered a sacred mountain by Armenians. It is featured prominently in Armenian literature and art and is an icon for Armenian irredentism. Along with Noah's Ark, it is depicted on the coat of arms of Armenia.
- 3Geography
- 4Geology
- 4.2Recent volcanic and seismic activity
- 5Ascents
- 6Resting place of Noah's Ark
- 7Significance for Armenians
- 8Cultural depictions
- 8.1In visual art
- 8.2In literature
- 8.3In popular culture
- 9Places named for Ararat
- 11References
- 12Bibliography
Political borders
Mount Ararat forms a near-quadripoint between Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran. Its summit is located some 16 km (10 mi) west of both the Iranian border and the border of the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan, and 32 km (20 mi) south of the Armenian border. The Turkish–Armenian–Azerbaijani and Turkish–Iranian–Azerbaijani tripoints are some 8 km apart, separated by a narrow strip of Turkish territory containing the E99 road which enters Nakhchivan at 39°39′19″N44°48′12″E / 39.6553°N 44.8034°E.
From the 16th century until 1828 the range was part of the Ottoman-Persian border; Great Ararat's summit and the northern slopes, along with the eastern slopes of Little Ararat were controlled by Persia. Following the 1826–28 Russo-Persian War and the Treaty of Turkmenchay, the Persian controlled territory was ceded to the Russian Empire. Little Ararat became the point where the Turkish, Persian, and Russian imperial frontiers converged.[7] The current international boundaries were formed throughout the 20th century. The mountain came under Turkish control during the 1920 Turkish–Armenian War.[8] It formally became part of Turkey according to the 1921 Treaty of Moscow and Treaty of Kars.[9] In the late 1920s, Turkey crossed the Iranian border and occupied the eastern flank of Lesser Ararat as part of its effort to quash the KurdishArarat rebellion,[10] during which the Kurdish rebels used the area as a safe haven against the Turkish state.[11] Iran eventually agreed to cede the area to Turkey in a territorial exchange.[10][12] The Iran-Turkey boundary skirts east of Lesser Ararat, the lower peak of the Ararat massif.
As of 2004 the mountain is open to climbers only with 'military permission'. The procedure to obtain the permission involves submitting a formal request to a Turkish embassy for a special 'Ararat visa', and it is mandatory to hire an official guide from the Turkish Federation for Alpinism. Access is still limited, even for climbers who obtain the necessary permission, and those who venture off the approved path may be fired upon without warning.[13]
Names and etymology
View from the Araratian plain near the city of Artashat, Armenia.
Closeup of Greater Ararat
Closeup of Lesser Ararat
View from Turkey
Ararat (sometimes Ararad) is the Greek version[14] of the Hebrew spelling (אֲרָרָט;[15] 'RRṬ) of the name Urartu,[16] a kingdom that existed in the Armenian plateau in the 9th–6th centuries BC. German orientalist and Bible critic Wilhelm Gesenius speculated that the word 'Ararat' came from the Sanskrit word Arjanwartah, meaning 'holy ground.'[17][18] Some Armenian historians, such as Ashot Melkonyan, link the origin of the word 'Ararat' to the root of the endonym of the indigenous peoples of the Armenian Highland ('ar–'), including the Armenians.[19][20] The mountain is known as Ararat in European languages,[21][22] however, none of the native peoples have traditionally referred to the mountain by that name.[23] In classical antiquity, particularly in Strabo's Geographica, the peaks of Ararat were known in ancient Greek as Ἄβος (Abos) and Νίβαρος (Nibaros).[a]
The traditional Armenian name is Masis (Մասիս [maˈsis]; sometimes Massis).[28][23] However, nowadays, the terms Masis and Ararat are both widely, often interchangeably, used in Armenian.[29][b] The folk etymology expressed in Movses Khorenatsi's History of Armenia derives the name from king Amasya, the great-grandson of the legendary Armenian patriarch Hayk, who is said to have called the mountain Masis after himself.[34][35] According to Russian orientalist Anatoly Novoseltsev the word Masis derives from Middle Persianmasist, 'the largest.'[36] According to Armenian historian Sargis Petrosyan the mas root in Masis means 'mountain', cf. Proto-Indo-European *mņs-.[35] According to archaeologist Armen Petrosyan it originates from the Māšu (Mashu) mountain mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh, which sounded Māsu in Assyrian.[37]
The Turkish name is Ağrı Dağı[aːɾɯ da.ɯ], Ottoman Turkish: اغـر طﺎﻍ Ağır Dağ), i.e. 'Mountain of Ağrı'. Ağrı literally translates to 'pain' or 'sorrow'.[21][36][38][39] This name has been known since the late Middle Ages.[36] Greater and Lesser Ararat are known as Büyük Ağrı and Küçük Ağrı, respectively. The traditional Persian name is کوه نوح, [ˈkuːhe ˈnuːh], Kūh-e Nūḥ,[7] literally the 'mountain of Noah'.[21][28] The Kurdish name of the mountain is çiyayê Agirî[40][41][t͡ʃɪjaːˈje aːgɪˈriː], which translates to 'fiery mountain'.[42]
Geography
Mount Ararat is located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey between the provinces of Ağrı and Iğdır, near the border with Iran, Armenia and Nakhchivanexclave of Azerbaijan, between the Aras and Murat rivers.[43] Its summit is located some 16 km (10 mi) west of the Turkey-Iran border and 32 km (20 mi) south of the Turco-Armenian border. The Ararat plain runs along its northwest to western side.
Elevation
An elevation of 5,165 m (16,946 ft) for Mount Ararat is given by some encyclopedias and reference works such as Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary and Encyclopedia of World Geography.[44][45][46][47] However, a number of sources, such as the United States Geological Survey and numerous topographic maps indicate that the alternatively widespread figure of 5,137 m (16,854 ft) is probably more accurate.[48][49] The current elevation may be as low as 5,125 m (16,814 ft) due to the melting of its snow-covered ice cap.[50]
Mount Ararat 3D
Summit ice cap
The ice cap on the summit of Mount Ararat has been shrinking since at least 1957. In the late 1950s, Blumenthal observed that there existed 11 outlet glaciers emerging from a summit snow mass that covered about 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi).[51] At that time, it was found that the present glaciers on the summit of Ararat extend as low as an elevation of 3,900 meters (12,800 ft) on the north-facing slope, and an elevation of 4,200 meters (13,800 ft) on its south-facing slope.[51] Using pre-existing aerial imagery and remote sensing data, Sarıkaya and others studied the extent of the ice cap on Mount Ararat between 1976 and 2011.[40][52] They discovered that this ice cap had shrunk to 8.0 km2 (3.1 sq mi) by 1976 and to 5.7 km2 (2.2 sq mi) by 2011. They calculated that between 1976 and 2011, the ice cap on top of Mount Ararat had lost 29% of its total area at an average rate of ice loss of 0.07 km2 (0.027 sq mi) per year over 35 years. This rate is consistent with the general rates of retreat of other Turkish summit glaciers and ice caps that have been documented by other studies.[52]
Blumenthal estimated that the snow line had been as low as 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) in elevation during the Late Pleistocene.[51] Such a snow line would have created an ice cap of 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in extent. However, he observed a lack of any clear evidence of prehistoric moraines other than those which were close to the 1958 glacier tongues. Blumenthal explained the absence of such moraines by the lack of confining ridges to control glaciers, insufficient debris load in the ice to form moraines, and their burial by later eruptions. Years later, Birman observed on the south-facing slopes a possible moraine that extends at least 300 meters (980 ft) in altitude below the base of the 1958 ice cap at an elevation of 4,200 meters (13,800 ft).[53] He also found two morainal deposits that were created by a Mount Ararat valley glacier of Pleistocene, possibly Wisconsinan (Last Glacial Maximum) age, downvalley from Lake Balık. The higher moraine lies at an altitude of about 2,200 meters (7,200 ft) and the lower moraine lies at an altitude of about 1,800 meters (5,900 ft). The lower moraine occurs about 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) downstream from Lake Balık. Both moraines are about 30 meters (98 ft) high. It is suspected that Lake Balık occupies a glacial basin.[53]
Geology
Mount Ararat represented by the dark brown spots in the buff colored lowlands of the Iğdir and Doğubeyazıt basins
Mount Ararat is a polygenic, compound stratovolcano. Covering an area of 1,100 km2 (420 sq mi), it is the largest volcanic edifice within the region. Along its northwest–southeast trending long axis, Mount Ararat is about 45 kilometers (28 mi) long and is about 30 kilometers (19 mi) long along its short axis. It consists of about 1,150 km3 (280 cu mi) of dacitic and rhyoliticpyroclastic debris and dacitic, rhyolitic, and basalticlavas.[5]
Mount Ararat consists of two distinct volcanic cones, Greater Ararat and Lesser Ararat (Little Ararat). The western volcanic cone, Greater Ararat, is a steep-sided volcanic cone that is larger and higher than the eastern volcanic cone. Greater Ararat is about 25 kilometers (16 mi) wide at the base and rises about 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) above the adjacent floors of the Iğdir and Doğubeyazıt basins. The eastern volcanic cone, Lesser Ararat, is 3,896 meters (12,782 ft) high and 15 kilometers (9.3 mi) across. These volcanic cones, which lie 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) apart, are separated by a wide north–south-trending crack. This crack is the surface expression of an extensional fault. Numerous parasitic cones and lava domes have been built by flank eruptions along this fault and on the flanks of both of the main volcanic cones.[5]
Mount Ararat lies within a complex, sinistral pull-apart basin that originally was a single, continuous depression. The growth of Mount Ararat partitioned this depression into two smaller basins, the Iğdir and Doğubeyazıt basins. This pull-apart basin is the result of strike-slip movement along two en-echelon fault segments, the Doğubeyazıt–Gürbulak and Iğdir Faults, of a sinistral strike–slip fault system. Tension between these faults not only formed the original pull-apart basin, but created a system of faults, exhibiting a horsetail splay pattern, that control the position of the principal volcanic eruption centers of Mount Ararat and associated linear belt of parasitic volcanic cones. The strike-slip fault system within which Mount Ararat is located is the result of north–south convergence and tectonic compression between the Arabian Platform and Laurasia that continued after the Tethys Ocean closed during the Eoceneepoch along the Bitlis–Zagros suture.[5][54][55]
Geological history
Paleogeography of the early Oligocene
Tectonic map of the Mediterranean and surrounding mountain ranges
During the early Eocene and early Miocene, the collision of the Arabian platform with Laurasia closed and eliminated the Tethys Ocean from the area of what is now Anatolia. The closure of these masses of continental crust collapsed this ocean basin by middle Eocene and resulted in a progressive shallowing of the remnant seas, until the end of the early Miocene. Post-collisional tectonic convergence within the collision zone resulted in the total elimination of the remaining seas from East Anatolia at the end of early Miocene, crustal shortening and thickening across the collision zone, and uplift of the East Anatolian–Iranian plateau. Accompanying this uplift was extensive deformation by faulting and folding, which resulted in the creation of numerous local basins. The north–south compressional deformation continues today as evidenced by ongoing faulting, volcanism, and seismicity.[5][54][56]
Within Anatolia, regional volcanism started in the middle-late Miocene. During the late Miocene–Pliocene period, widespread volcanism blanketed the entire East Anatolian–Iranian plateau under thick volcanic rocks. This volcanic activity has continued uninterrupted until historical times. Apparently, it reached a climax during the latest Miocene–Pliocene, 6 to 3 Ma. During the Quaternary, the volcanism became restricted to a few local volcanoes such as Mount Ararat. These volcanoes are typically associated with north–south tensional fractures formed by the continuing north–south shortening deformation of Anatolia.[5]
In their detailed study and summary of the Quaternary volcanism of Anatolia, Yilmaz et al. recognized four phases to the construction of Mount Ararat from volcanic rocks exposed in glacial valleys deeply carved into its flanks.[5] First, they recognized a fissure eruption phase of Plinian-subPlinianfissure eruptions that deposited more than 700 meters (2,300 ft) of pyroclastic rocks and a few basaltic lava flows. These volcanic rocks were erupted from approximately north northwest–south southeast-trending extensional faults and fissures prior to the development of Mount Ararat. Second, a cone-building phase began when the volcanic activity became localized at a point along a fissure. During this phase, the eruption of successive flows of lava up to 150 meters (490 ft) thick and pyroclastic flows of andesite and dacite composition and later eruption of basaltic lava flows, formed the Greater Ararat cone with a low conical profile. Third, during a climatic phase, copious flows of andesitic and basaltic lavas were erupted. During this phase, the current cones of Greater and Lesser Ararat were formed as eruptions along subsidiary fissures and cracks and flank occurred. Finally, the volcanic eruptions at Mount Ararat transitioned into a flank eruption phase, during which a major north–south-trending fault offset the two cones that developed along with a number of subsidiary fissures and cracks on the volcano's flanks. Along this fault and the subsidiary fissures and cracks, a number of parasitic cones and domes were built by minor eruptions. One subsidiary cone erupted voluminous basalt and andesite lava flows. They flowed across the Doğubeyazıt plain and along the southerly flowing Sarısu River. These lava flows formed black ʻaʻā and pāhoehoe lava flows that contain well preserved lava tubes.[5] The radiometric dating of these lava flows yielded radiometric ages of 0.4, 0.48 and 0.81 Ma.[57] Overall, radiometric ages obtained from the volcanic rocks erupted by Mount Ararat range from 1.5 to 0.02 Ma.[5]
Recent volcanic and seismic activity
The chronology of Holocene volcanic activity associated with Mount Ararat is documented by either archaeological excavations, oral history, historical records, or a combination of these data, which provide evidence that volcanic eruptions of Mount Ararat occurred in 2500–2400 BC, 550 BC, possibly in 1450 AD and 1783 AD, and definitely in 1840 AD. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that explosive eruptions and pyroclastic flows from the northwest flank of Mount Ararat destroyed and buried at least one Kura–Araxes culture settlement and caused numerous fatalities in 2500–2400 BC. Oral histories indicated that a significant eruption of uncertain magnitude occurred in 550 BC and minor eruptions of uncertain nature might have occurred in 1450 AD and 1783 AD.[58][55][56][59] According to the interpretation of historical and archaeological data, strong earthquakes not associated with volcanic eruptions also occurred the area of Mount Ararat in 139, 368, 851–893, and 1319 AD. During the 139 AD earthquake, a large landslide that caused many casualties and was similar to the 1840 AD landslide originated from the summit of Mount Ararat.[55][56][60]
1840 eruption
A phreatic eruption occurred on Mount Ararat on July 2, 1840 and pyroclastic flow from radial fissures on the upper north flank of the mountain and a possibly associated earthquake of magnitude 7.4 that caused severe damage and numerous casualties. Up to 10,000 people in the region died in the earthquake, including 1,900 villagers in the village of Akhuri (Armenian: Akori, modern Yenidoğan) who were killed by a gigantic landslide and subsequent debris flow. In addition, this combination of landslide and debris flow destroyed the Armenian monastery of St. Jacob near Akori, the town of Aralik, several villages, and Russian military barracks. It also temporarily dammed the Sevjur (Metsamor) River.[58][55][56][59]
Ascents
The 13th century missionary William of Rubruck wrote that 'Many have tried to climb it, but none has been able.'[61]
Armenian attitudes
The Armenian Apostolic Church was historically opposed to ascents of Ararat on religious grounds. Thomas Stackhouse, an 18th-century English theologian, noted that 'All the Armenians are firmly persuaded that Noah's ark exists to the present day on the summit of Mount Ararat, and that in order to preserve it, no person is permitted to approach it.'[62] In response to its first ascent by Parrot and Abovian, one high-ranking Armenian Apostolic Church clergyman commented that to climb the sacred mountain was 'to tie the womb of the mother of all mankind in a dragonish mode.' By contrast, in the 21st century to climb Ararat is 'the most highly valued goal of some of the patriotic pilgrimages that are organized in growing number from Armenia and the Armenian diaspora.'[63]
First ascent
The first recorded ascent of the mountain in modern times took place on 9 October [O.S. 27 September] 1829.[64][65][66][67] The Baltic German naturalist Friedrich Parrot of the University of Dorpat arrived at Etchmiadzin in mid-September 1829, almost two years after the Russian capture of Erivan, for the sole purpose of exploring Ararat.[68] The prominent Armenian writer Khachatur Abovian, then a deacon and translator at Etchmiadzin, was assigned by Catholicos Yeprem, the head of the Armenian Church, as interpreter and guide.
Parrot and Abovian crossed the Aras River into the district of Surmali and headed to the Armenian village of Akhuri on the northern slope of Ararat, 1,220 metres (4,000 ft) above sea level. They set up a base camp at the Armenian monastery of St. Hakob some 730 metres (2,400 ft) higher, at an elevation of 1,943 metres (6,375 ft). After two failed attempts, they reached the summit on their third attempt at 3:15 p.m. on October 9, 1829.[65][69] The group included Parrot, Abovian, two Russian soldiers – Aleksei Zdorovenko and Matvei Chalpanov – and two Armenian Akhuri villagers – Hovhannes Aivazian and Murad Poghosian.[70] Parrot measured the elevation at 5,250 metres (17,220 ft) using a mercury barometer. This was not only the first recorded ascent of Ararat, but also the second highest elevation climbed by man up to that date outside of Mount Licancabur in the Chilean Andes. Abovian dug a hole in the ice and erected a wooden cross facing north.[71] Abovian also picked up a chunk of ice from the summit and carried it down with him in a bottle, considering the water holy. On 8 November [O.S. 27 October] 1829, Parrot and Abovian together with the Akhuri hunter Sahak's brother Hako, acting as a guide, climbed up Lesser Ararat.[72]
Later notable ascents
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Other early notable climbers of Ararat included Russian climatologist and meteorologist Kozma Spassky-Avtonomov (August 1834), Karl Behrens (1835), German mineralogist and geologist Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich (29 July 1845),[73] and British politician Henry Danby Seymour (1848).[74] Later in the 19th century, two British politicians and scholars—James Bryce (1876)[75] and H. F. B. Lynch (1893)[76][77]—climbed the mountain. The first winter climb was by Turkish alpinist Bozkurt Ergör, the former president of the Turkish Mountaineering Federation, who climbed the peak on 21 February 1970.[78]
Resting place of Noah's Ark
'Topography of Paradise' by German Jesuit scholar Athanasius Kircher from his 1675 book Arca Noë. In the northeast, in the mountains above Armenia, stands Mount Ararat, shown with a rectangular-shaped ark on the summit.[79]
Origins of the tradition
According to the fourth verse of the eighth chapter of the Book of Genesis (Genesis 8:4), following a flood, Noah's Ark landed on the 'mountains of Ararat' (BiblicalHebrew: הָרֵי אֲרָרָט, hare ararat).[80] Most historians and Bible scholars agree that 'Ararat' is the Hebrew name of Urartu, the geographic predecessor of Armenia and referred to the wider region at the time and not the mountain today known as Ararat.[c] Indeed, the phrase is translated as 'mountains of Armenia' (montes Armeniae) in the Vulgate, the fourth century Latin translation of the Bible.[84] Nevertheless, Mount Ararat is considered the traditional site of the resting place of Noah's Ark.[85] It is therefore called a biblical mountain.[86][87]
Mount Ararat has been associated with the Genesis flood story since the 11–12th centuries.[82] The local Armenian population began to identify it as the ark's landing place during those centuries.[88]F. C. Conybeare wrote that the mountain was 'a center and focus of pagan myths and cults [...] and it was only in the eleventh century, after these had vanished from the popular mind, that the Armenian theologians ventured to locate on its eternal snows the resting-place of Noah's ark.'[89] The 13th century Franciscan missionary William of Rubruck is usually considered the earliest reference for the tradition of Mount Ararat as the landing place of the ark in European literature.[61][81][90] The 14th century English traveler John Mandeville is another early author who mentioned Mount Ararat, 'where Noah's ship rested, and it is still there.'[91][92]
Prevalence of the legend
Descent of Noah from Ararat by Ivan Aivazovsky (1889, National Gallery of Armenia) depicts Noah with his family, and a procession of animals, crossing the Ararat plain, following their descent from Mount Ararat, which is seen in the background.[93][94]
Most Christians identify Mount Ararat with the biblical 'mountains of Ararat,' despite the fact that six other landing places have been proposed, 'largely because it would have been the first peak to emerge from the receding flood waters.'[85] Ararat is where the European tradition and most of Western Christianity place the landing of Noah's Ark. According to Spencer and Lienard the tradition 'seems to be well entrenched in the Christian world.'[90] A 1722 biblical dictionary by Austin Calmet and the 1871 Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary both point to Mount Ararat as the place where tradition says the ark rested.[95][96] American missionary H. G. O. Dwight wrote in 1856 that it is 'the general opinion of the learned in Europe.'[97]James Bryce, while admitting that the biblical passage implies that the ark rested upon a 'mountain in the district which the Hebrews knew as Ararat, or Armenia', wrote in an 1878 article for the Royal Geographical Society that the biblical writer must have had Mt. Ararat in mind because it is so 'very much higher, more conspicuous, and more majestic than any other summit in Armenia.'[75]
During his visit to Armenia in 2001 Pope John Paul II declared in his homily in Yerevan's St. Gregory the Illuminator Cathedral: 'We are close to Mount Ararat, where tradition says that the Ark of Noah came to rest.'[98]Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, also mentioned Mount Ararat as the resting place of Noah's Ark in his speech at the Etchmiadzin Cathedral during his visit to Armenia in 2010.[99]
Those critical of this view point out that Ararat was the name of the country, not the mountain, at the time when Genesis was written. Arnold wrote in his 2008 Genesis commentary, 'The location 'on the mountains' of Ararat indicates not a specific mountain by that name, but rather the mountainous region of the land of Ararat.'[16]
Searches
Ararat has traditionally been the main focus of the searches for Noah's Ark.[85]Augustin Calmet wrote in his 1722 biblical dictionary, 'It is affirmed, but without proof, that there are still remains of Noah's ark on the top of this mountain; but M. de Tournefort, who visited this spot, has assured us there was nothing like it; that the top of mount Ararat is inaccessible, both by reason of its great height, and of the snow which perpetually covers it.'[95] Archaeological expeditions, sometimes supported by evangelical and millenarian churches, have been conducted since the 19th century in search of the ark.[100] According to a 1974 book around 200 people from more than 20 countries claimed to have seen the Ark on Ararat since 1856.[101] A fragment from the ark supposedly found on Ararat is on display at the museum of Etchmiadzin Cathedral, the center of the Armenian Church.[102] Despite numerous reports of ark sightings (e.g. Ararat anomaly) and rumors, 'no scientific evidence of the ark has emerged.'[103]Searches for Noah's Ark are considered by scholars an example of pseudoarchaeology.[104][105]Kenneth Feder writes, 'As the flood story itself is unsupported by any archaeological evidence, it is not surprising that there is no archaeological evidence for the existence of an impossibly large boat dating to 5,000 years ago.'[106]
Significance for Armenians
Symbolism
Ararat—located some 65 km (40 mi) south of the city–dominates the skyline of Armenia's capital Yerevan.[31][87][107][108]
Hayk, the legendary founding father of the Armenian people, as depicted by Mkrtum Hovnatanian (1779–1846). Ararat is pictured in the background.
Despite lying outside the borders of the modern Republic of Armenia, Ararat has historically been associated with Armenia.[109][110][d] It is widely considered the country's principal national symbol and brand.[114][115] The image of Ararat, usually framed within a nationalizing discourse, is ubiquitous in everyday material culture in Armenia.[116] According to ethnographer Tsypylma Darieva Armenians have 'a sense of possession of Ararat in the sense of symbolic cultural property.'[117]
Ararat is known as the 'holy mountain' of the Armenian people.[118][107][119] It was principal to the pre-Christian Armenian mythology, where it was the home of the gods.[120] With the rise of Christianity, the mythology associated with pagan worship of the mountain was lost.[121] Ararat was the geographical center of ancient Armenian kingdoms.[e] One scholar defined the historic Greater Armenia (Major Armenia) as 'the area about 200 miles [320 km] in every direction from Mount Ararat.'[125] In 19th-century era of romantic nationalism, when an Armenian state did not exist, Mt. Ararat symbolized the historical Armenian nation-state.[126] In 1861 Armenian poet Mikael Nalbandian, witnessing the Italian unification, wrote to Harutiun Svadjian in a letter from Naples: 'Etna and Vesuvius are still smoking; is there no fire left in the old volcano of Ararat?'[127]
Myth of origin
The Genesis flood narrative was linked to the Armenian myth of origin by the early medieval historian Movses Khorenatsi. In his History of Armenia, he wrote that Noah and his family first settled in Armenia and later moved to Babylon. Hayk, a descendant of Japheth, a son of Noah, revolted against Bel (the biblical Nimrod) and returned to the area around Mount Ararat, where he established the roots of the Armenian nation. He is thus considered the legendary founding father and the name giver of the Armenian people.[128][129] According to Razmik Panossian, this legend 'makes Armenia the cradle of all civilisation since Noah's Ark landed on the 'Armenian' mountain of Ararat. […] it connects Armenians to the biblical narrative of human development. […] it makes Mount Ararat the national symbol of all Armenians, and the territory around it the Armenian homeland from time immemorial.'[130]
Coat of arms of Armenia
Mount Ararat has been depicted on the coat of arms of Armenia consistently since 1918. The First Republic's coat of arms was designed by architect Alexander Tamanian and painter Hakob Kojoyan. This coat of arms was readopted by the legislature of the Republic of Armenia on April 19, 1992, after Armenia regained independence. Ararat is depicted along with the ark on its peak on the shield on an orange background.[131]
The emblem of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Armenia) was created by the painters Martiros Saryan and Hakob Kojoyan in 1921.[132] Mount Ararat is depicted in the center and makes up a large portion of it.[133]
- Current Republic (1992–)
Symbol of genocide and territorial claims
In the aftermath of the Armenian Genocide of 1915, Ararat came to represent the destruction of the native Armenian population of eastern Turkey (Western Armenia) in the national consciousness of Armenians.[f][135]Ari L. Goldman noted in 1988, 'In most Armenian homes in the modern diaspora, there are pictures of Mount Ararat, a bittersweet reminder of the homeland and national aspirations.'[136]
Ararat has become a symbol of Armenian efforts to reclaim its 'lost lands', i.e. the areas west of Ararat that are now part of Turkey that had significant Armenian population before the genocide.[19] Adriaans noted that Ararat is featured as a sanctified territory for the Armenians in everyday banal irredentism.[137] Stephanie Platz wrote, 'Omnipresent, the vision of Ararat rising above Yerevan and its outskirts constantly reminds Armenians of their putative ethnogenesis … and of their exile from Eastern Anatolia after the Armenian genocide of 1915.'[138]
Lebanese Armenians protesting Turkish Prime Minister Erdoğan's visit to Beirut in November 2010.[139] The poster reads 'Ararat is and remains Armenian'.
Turkish political scientist Bayram Balci argues that regular references to the Armenian Genocide and Mount Ararat 'clearly indicate' that the border with Turkey is contested in Armenia.[140] Since independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, the Armenian government has not made official claims to any Turkish territory,[140][141] however the Armenian government has avoided 'an explicit and formal recognition of the existing Turkish-Armenian border.'[142] In a 2010 interview with Der Spiegel, Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan was asked whether Armenia wants 'Mount Ararat back.' Sargsyan, in response, said that 'No one can take Mount Ararat from us; we keep it in our hearts. Wherever Armenians live in the world today, you will find a picture of Mount Ararat in their homes. And I feel certain that a time will come when Mount Ararat is no longer a symbol of the separation between our peoples, but an emblem of understanding. But let me make this clear: Never has a representative of Armenia made territorial demands. Turkey alleges this—perhaps out of its own bad conscience?'[143]
The most prominent party to lay claims to eastern Turkey is the nationalist Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun). which claims it as part of what it considers United Armenia.[144] In various settings, several notable individuals such as German historian Tessa Hofmann,[g] Slovak conservative politician František Mikloško,[h] Lithuanian political scientist and Soviet dissident Aleksandras Štromas[i] have spoken in support of Armenian claims over Mt. Ararat.
Cultural depictions
The first stamps issued by independent Armenia in 1992[148]
The mountain is notably featured on the Ararat brandy.
Ethnographer Levon Abrahamian noted that Ararat is visually present for Armenians in reality (it can be seen from many houses in Yerevan and settlements in the Ararat plain), symbolically (through many visual representations, such as on Armenia's coats of arms), and culturally—in numerous and various nostalgic poetical, political, architectural representation.[149] The first three postage stamps issued by Armenia in 1992 after achieving independence from the Soviet Union depicted Mt. Ararat.[148]
Mount Ararat has been depicted on various Armenian dram banknotes issued in 1993–2001; on the reverse of the 10 dram banknotes issued in 1993, on the reverse of the 50 dram banknotes issued in 1998, on the obverse of the 100 and 500 dram banknotes issued in 1993, and on the reverse of the 50,000 dram banknotes issued in 2001. It was also depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 100 lira banknotes of 1972–1986.[j]
Ararat is depicted on the logos of two of Armenia's leading universities—the Yerevan State University and the American University of Armenia. It is depicted on the logos of Football Club Ararat Yerevan (since the Soviet times) and the Football Federation of Armenia. The logo of Armavia, Armenia's now defunct flag carrier, also depicted Ararat. The publications of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party in Lebanon (Ararad daily) and California, U.S. (Massis weekly) are both named for the mountain. The Ararat brandy, produced by the Yerevan Brandy Company since 1887, is considered the most prestigious Eastern European brandy.[150] Hotels in Yerevan often advertise the visibility of Ararat from their rooms, which is seen as a major advantage for tourists.[151][152][153]
In visual art
European
Ararat was depicted in the books of European, including many British, travelers in the 18th–19th centuries who visited Armenia.
- Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, 1718
- Robert Ker Porter, 1821
- 'View of Ararat and the Monastery of Echmiadzin', from the 1846 English translation of Friedrich Parrot's Journey to Ararat
- James Bryce, 1877
- H. F. B. Lynch, 1901
Armenian
According to one source, the first Armenian artist to depict the mountain was Ivan Aivazovsky,[154] who created a painting of Ararat during his visit to Armenia in 1868.[155] Other major Armenians artists who painted Ararat include Yeghishe Tadevosyan, Gevorg Bashinjaghian, Martiros Saryan,[156] and Panos Terlemezian.
- Ivan Aivazovsky, Valley of Mount Ararat, 1882
- Yeghishe Tadevosyan, Ararat from Ejmiatsin, 1895
- Gevorg Bashinjaghian, 1912
- Panos Terlemezian, 1929
In literature
Rouben Paul Adalian suggested that 'there is probably more poetry written about Mount Ararat than any other mountain on earth.'[121] Travel writer Rick Antonson described Ararat as the 'most fabled mountain in the world.'[157]
Non-Armenian
English Romantic poet William Wordsworth imagines seeing the ark in the poem 'Sky-prospect — From the Plain of France':[158][159]
In his Journey to Arzrum (Путешествие в Арзрум; 1835–36), the celebrated Russian poet Aleksandr Pushkin recounted his travels to the Caucasus and Armenia at the time of the Russo-Turkish War (1828–29).
I went out of the tent into the fresh morning air. The sun was rising. Against the clear sky one could see a white-snowcapped, twin-peaked mountain. 'What mountain is that?' I asked, stretching myself, and heard the answer: 'That's Ararat.' What a powerful effect a few syllables can have! Avidly I looked at the Biblical mountain, saw the ark moored to its peak with the hope of regeneration and life, saw both the raven and dove, flying forth, the symbols of punishment and reconciliation...[160]
Aleksandr Pushkin in Journey to Arzrum
Russian Symbolist poet Valery Bryusov often referred to Ararat in his poetry and dedicated two poems to the mountain,[k] which were published in 1917. Bryusov saw Ararat as the embodiment of antiquity of the Armenian people and their culture.[161]
Russian poet Osip Mandelstam wrote fondly of Ararat during his 1933 travels in Armenia. 'I have cultivated in myself a sixth sense, an 'Ararat' sense,' the poet wrote, 'the sense of an attraction to a mountain.'[162]
During his travels to Armenia, Soviet Russian writer Vasily Grossman observed Mount Ararat from Yerevan standing 'high in the blue sky.' He wrote that 'with its gentle, tender contours, it seems to grow not out of the earth but out of the sky, as if it has condensed from its white clouds and its deep blue. It is this snowy mountain, this bluish-white sunlit mountain that shone in the eyes of those who wrote the Bible.'[163]
In The Maximus Poems (1953) American poet Charles Olson, who grew up near the Armenian neighborhood in Worcester, Massachusetts, compares the Ararat Hill near his childhood home to the mountain and 'imagines he can capture an Armenian's immigrant perspective: the view of Ararat Hill as Mount Ararat.'[164]
Several major episodes in Declare (2001) by Tim Powers take place on Mt. Ararat. In the book, it is the focal point of supernatural happenings.
Armenian
Several paintings of Mt. Ararat for sale at the Yerevan Vernissage.
Mt. Ararat is featured prominently in Armenian literature. According to Meliné Karakashian, Armenian poets 'attribute to it symbolic meanings of unity, freedom, and independence.'[165] According to Kevork Bardakjian, in Armenian literature, Ararat 'epitomizes Armenia and Armenian suffering and aspirations, especially the consequences of the 1915 genocide: almost total annihilation, loss of a unique culture and land [...] and an implicit determination never to recognize the new political borders.'[166]
The last two lines of Yeghishe Charents's 1920 poem 'I Love My Armenia' (Ես իմ անուշ Հայաստանի) read: 'And in the entire world you will not find a mountaintop like Ararat's. / Like an unreachable peak of glory I love my Mount Masis.'[167] In a 1926[168] poem dedicated to the mountain Avetik Isahakyan wrote: 'Ages as though in second came, / Touched the grey crest of Ararat, / And passed by...! [...] It's now your turn; you too, now, / Stare at its high and lordly brow, / And pass by...!'[169] Mount Ararat is the most frequently cited symbol in the poetry of Hovhannes Shiraz.[166] In collection of poems, Knar Hayastani (Lyre of Armenia) published in 1958, there are many poems 'with very strong nationalist overtones, especially with respect to Mount Ararat (in Turkey) and the irredentism it entailed.' In one such poem, 'Ktak' (Bequest), Shiraz bequeaths his son Mt. Ararat to 'keep it forever, / As the language of us Armenians, as the pillar of your father’s home.'[170]
The first lines of Paruyr Sevak's 1961 poem 'We Are Few...' (Քիչ ենք, բայց հայ ենք) read: 'We are few, but they say of us we are Armenians. / We do not think ourselves superior to anyone. / Clearly we shall have to accept / That we, and only we, have an Ararat'[171] In one short poem Silva Kaputikyan compares Armenia to an 'ancient rock-carved fortress', the towers of which are Ararat and Aragats.
In popular culture
In music
- 'Holy Mountains', the 8th track of the album Hypnotize (2005) by System of a Down, an American rock band composed of four Armenian Americans, 'references Mount Ararat [...] and details that the souls lost to the Armenian Genocide have returned to rest here.'[172]
- 'Here's to You Ararat' is a song from the 2006 album How Much is Yours' of Arto Tunçboyacıyan's Armenian Navy Band.[173]
In film
- The 2002 film Ararat by Armenian-Canadian filmmaker Atom Egoyan features Mt. Ararat prominently in its symbolism.[174]
- The 2011 documentary film Journey to Ararat on Parrot and Abovian's expedition to Ararat was produced in Estonia by filmmaker Riho Västrik.[175][176] It was screened at the Golden Apricot International Film Festival in Yerevan in 2013.[177]
Places named for Ararat
- In Armenia, there is a province, two cities (Ararat, Masis), and two villages (Ararat, Masis) named after the mountain.[178]
- The Turkish province of Ağrı was named for the mountain (its Turkish name) in 1927, while the provincial capital city of Karaköse was renamed to Ağrı in 1946.[179]
- In the United States, a river in Virginia and North Carolina was named after the mountain no later than 1770. An unincorporated community in North Carolina was later named after the river.[180] There is a township and a mountain in Pennsylvania called for the mountain.[181]
- In the Australian state of Victoria, a city was named Ararat in 1840. Its local government area is also called Ararat.[182][183]
- 96205 Ararat is an asteroidnamed in the mountain's honor. It was discovered in 1992 by Freimut Börngen and Lutz D. Schmadel at Tautenburg Observatory in Germany. The name was proposed by Börngen.[184]
States
- Besides Ararat being the Hebrew version of Urartu,[16] this Iron Age state is often referred to as the 'Araratian Kingdom' or the 'Kingdom of Ararat' (Armenian: Արարատյան թագավորություն, Arartyan t’agavorut’yun) in Armenian historiography.[185] Levon Abrahamian noted that the name gives a 'biblical and an Armenian touch to this ancient state.'[186]
- The First Republic of Armenia, the first modern Armenian state that existed between 1918 and 1920, was sometimes called the Araratian Republic or the Republic of Ararat (Armenian: Արարատյան Հանրապետություն, Araratyan hanrapetut’yun)[187][188] as it was centered in the Ararat plain.[189][190]
- In 1927 the Kurdish nationalist party Xoybûn led by Ihsan Nuri, fighting an uprising against the Turkish government, declared the independence of the Republic of Ararat (Kurdish: Komara Agiriyê), centered around Mt. Ararat.[191][192]
Gallery
- taken from the International Space Station on 8 July 2011
- taken from the Space Shuttle on 18 March 2001
- View of Ararat from Khor Virap, Armenia
- View of Ararat with the Khor Virap in the front, Armenia
- View of Ararat from Iğdır, Turkey
- from Doğubeyazıt
- from Iğdır
- from Nakhchivan
References
Notes
- ^Strabo, Geographica, XI.14.2 and XI.14.14.[24] They are also transliterated as Abus and Nibarus.[25] Abos and Nibaros are the two peaks of Ararat according to scholars such as Nicholas Adontz,[24]Vladimir Minorsky,[26]Julius Fürst.[27]
- ^The peaks are sometimes referred to in plural as Մասիսներ Masisner.[30] Greater Ararat is known as simply Masis or Մեծ Մասիս (Mets Masis, 'Great/Big Masis'). While Lesser Ararat is known as Sis (Սիս)[31][32] or Փոքր Մասիս (P′ok′r Masis, 'Little/Small Masis').[21][30] The word 'Ararat' occurs in Armenian literature from the early medieval period, following the invention of the Armenian alphabet.[33]
- ^
- Richard James Fischer: 'The Genesis text, using the plural 'mountains' (or hills), identifies no particular mountain, but points generally toward Armenia ('Ararat' being identical with the Assyrian 'Urartu') which is broadly embraces that region.'[81]
- Exell, Joseph S.; Spence-Jones, Henry Donald Maurice (eds.). 'Genesis'. The Pulpit Commentary.
It is agreed by all that the term Ararat describes a region.
view online - Dummelow, John, ed. (1909). 'Genesis'. John Dummelow's Commentary on the Bible.
Ararat is the Assyrian 'Urardhu,' the country round Lake Van, in what is now called Armenia [...] and perhaps it is a general expression for the hilly country which lay to the N. of Assyria. Mt. Masis, now called Mt. Ararat (a peak 17,000 ft. high), is not meant here.
view online - Bill T. Arnold: 'Since the ancient kingdom of Ararat/Urartu was much more extensive geographically than this isolated location in Armenia, modern attempts to find remaints of Noah's ark here are misguided.'[82]
- Vahan Kurkjian: 'It has long been the notion among many Christians that Noah's Ark came to rest as the Flood subsided upon the great peak known as Mount Ararat; this assumption is based upon an erroneous reading of the 4th verse of the VIIIth chapter of Genesis. That verse does not say that the Ark landed upon Mount Ararat, but upon 'the mountains of Ararat.' Now, Ararat was the Hebrew version of the name, not of the mountain but of the country around it, the old Armenian homeland, whose name at other times and in other tongues appears variously as Erirath, Urartu, etc.'[83]
- ^Armenians have been called the 'people of Ararat' by authors of at least two books.[111][112] Italian diplomat and historian Luigi Villari wrote in 1906: 'Almost the whole history of the Armenian people centres round Mount Ararat.'[113]
- ^'...Mt. Ararat, which was the geographical center of the ancient Armenian kingdoms...'[122]
- 'The sacred mountain stands in the center of historical and traditional Armenia...'[123]
- 'To the Armenians it is the ancient sanctuary of their faith, the centre of their once famous kingdom, hallowed by a thousand traditions.'[124]
- ^'The lands of Western Armenia which Mt. Ararat represent...'[126] 'mount Ararat is the symbol of banal irredentism for the territories of Western Armenia'[134]
- ^Hofmann suggested that 'the return of the ruins of Ani and of Mount Ararat [by Turkey to Armenia], both in the immediate border area could be considered as a convincing gesture of Turkey's apologies and will for reconciliation.'[145]
- ^Mikloško stated at a 2010 conference on Turkey's foreign policy: 'Mount Ararat [represents the] Christian heritage of Armenians. Does modern Turkey consider the possibility of giving the mount back to Armenians? The return of Ararat would be an unprecedented step to signify Turkey’s willingness to build a peaceful future and promote its image at the international scene.'[146]
- ^Štromas wrote: 'The Armenians would also be right to claim from Turkey the Ararat Valley, which is an indivisible part of the Armenian homeland containing the main spiritual center and supreme symbol of Armenia's nationhood, the holy Mountain of Ararat itself.'[147]
- ^Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 6. Emission Group – One Hundred Turkish Lira – I. Series, II. Series & III. Series.
- ^'К Арарату' ('To Ararat') and 'Арарат из Эривани' ('Ararat from Erivan')
Citations
- ^'100 World Mountains ranked by primary factor'. ii.uib.no. Institutt for informatikk University of Bergen.
- ^Bjørstad, Petter E. (August 2007). 'Ararat Trip Report'. ii.uib.no. University of Bergen. Archived from the original on 21 October 2017.
- ^'Ağrı Dağı Milli Parkı [Ağrı Dağı National Park]'. ormansu.gov.tr (in Turkish). Republic of Turkey Ministry of Forest and Water Management.
- ^'Ararat'. Merriam-Webster.
ˈer-ə-ˌrat, ˈa-rə-
; 'Ararat'. Collins Dictionary.ˈærəˌræt
- ^ abcdefghiYilmaz, Y.; Güner, Y.; Saroğlu, F. (1998). 'Geology of the quaternary volcanic centres of the east Anatolia'. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 85 (1–4): 173–210. Bibcode:1998JVGR...85..173Y. doi:10.1016/s0377-0273(98)00055-9.
- ^Short, Nicholas M.; Blair, Robert W., eds. (1986). 'Mt. Ararat, Turkey'. Geomorphology From Space: A Global Overview of Regional Landforms. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. p. 226.
- ^ abde Planhol, X. (1986). 'Ararat'. Encyclopædia Iranica.
- ^Hovannisian, Richard G. (1973). 'Armenia and the Caucasus in the Genesis of the Soviet-Turkish Entente'. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 4 (2): 129–147. doi:10.1017/s0020743800027409. JSTOR162238.
...Nationalist Turkey annexed the Surmalu district, embracing Mount Ararat, the historic symbol of the Armenian people.
- ^de Waal, Thomas (2015). Great Catastrophe: Armenians and Turks in the Shadow of Genocide. Oxford University Press. p. 86. ISBN978-0199350698.
- ^ abParrot 2016, p. xxiii.
- ^Yildiz, Kerim; Taysi, Tanyel B. (2007). The Kurds in Iran: The Past, Present and Future. London: Pluto Press. p. 71. ISBN978-0745326696.
- ^Tsutsiev, Arthur (2014). Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus. Translated by Nora Seligman Favorov. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 92. ISBN978-0300153088.
- ^Westerman, Frank (2008-12-02). Ararat: In Search of the Mythical Mountain. Random House. ISBN978-1-4070-1951-2.
- ^Petrosyan 2016, p. 68.
- ^Frymer, Tikva S.; Sperling, S. David (2008). 'Ararat, Armenia'. Encyclopaedia Judaica (2nd ed.).view online
- ^ abcArnold 2008, p. 104.
- ^Rogers, Thorold (1884). Bible Folk-Lore: A Study in Comparative Methodology. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. p. 21.
Ararat was thought by Gesenius to be a Sanskrit word (Arjawartah), signifying 'holy ground,'...
- ^Bonomi, Joseph (1866). 'Ararat'. In Fairbairn, Patrick (ed.). The Imperial Bible-Dictionary: Historical, Biographical, Geographical and Doctrinal - Volume I. Glasgow: Blackie and Son. p. 118.
- ^ abAvakyan, K. R. (2009). 'Աշոտ Մելքոնյան, Արարատ. Հայոց անմահության խորհուրդը [Ashot Melkonyan, Ararat. Symbol of Armenian Immortality]'. Lraber Hasarakakan Gitutyunneri (in Armenian). № 1 (1): 252–257.
Պատմական ճակատագրի բերումով Արարատ-Մասիսը ոչ միայն վեհության, անհասանելիության, կատարելության մարմնավորում է, այլև 1915 թ. հայոց մեծ եղեռնից ու հայ ժողովրդի հայրենազրկումից հետո՝ բռնազավթված հայրենիքի և այն նորեն իր արդար զավակներին վերադարձելու համոզումի անկրկնելի խորհրդանիշ, աշխարհասփյուռ հայության միասնականության փարոս» (էջ 8):
- ^Teryan, Anzhela (31 August 2011). 'Երևան անվան ծագման մասին [On the origin of the name Yerevan]' (in Armenian). Yerevan History Museum. Archived from the original on 7 June 2018.
Հայտնի է, որ Հայկական լեռնաշխարհում Ար-ով /նաև էր, Ուր, Իր/ սկսվող բազմաթիվ աշխարհագրական (նաև անձնական) անուններ կան. Արարատ, Արագած, Արա, Արաքս, Արածանի, Արմավիր, Արճեշ…: Այս երևույթը կապված է Արարչի /Ար Աստված/ և նրա պաշտանմունքն ունեցող Հայկական լեռնաշխարհի բնիկների՝ հայ-արմենների՝ արմեն, նաև արի /Էրի/ անվան հետ:
- ^ abcdHewsen, Robert H. (2001). 'Armenia: The Physical Setting—Mt. Ararat'. Armenia: A Historical Atlas. University of Chicago Press. p. 15. ISBN978-0-226-33228-4.
- ^Smith, Eli (1832). 'Foreign Correspondence'. The Biblical Repository and Classical Review: 203.
...called by the Armenians, Masis, and by Europeans generally Ararat...
- ^ abBryce 1877, p. 198.
- ^ abPetrossyan 2010, p. 220.
- ^Jones, Horace Leonard, ed. (1928). 'XI.14'. The Geography of Strabo. Harvard University Press.view Book XI, Chapter 14 online
- ^Minorsky, V. (1944). 'Roman and Byzantine Campaigns in Atropatene'. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 11 (2): 243–265. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0007244X. JSTOR609312.
Although what Strabo means by Abos seems to be the southern spurs of Mt. Ararat...
- ^Julius Fürst cited in Exell, Joseph; Jones, William; Barlow, George; Scott, W. Frank; et al. (1892). The Preacher's Complete Homiletical Commentary. '...the present Aghri Dagh or the great Ararat (Pers. Kuhi Nuch, i.e. Noah's mountain, in the classics ὁ ἄβος, Armen. massis)...' (Furst.) view online
- ^ abJastrow Jr., Morris; Kent, Charles Foster (1902). 'Ararat'. Jewish Encyclopedia Volume II. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co. p. 73.
The mountain itself is known as Ararat only among Occidental geographers. The Armenians call it Massis, the Turks Aghri Dagh, and the Persians Koh i Nuh, or 'the mountain of Noah.'
view online - ^Avetisyan, Kamsar (1979). Հայրենագիտական էտյուդներ [Armenian studies sketches] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Sovetakan grogh. p. 14.
Հայերը Արարատը անվանում են Մասիս...
- ^ ab'Մասիսներ [Masisner]'. encyclopedia.am (in Armenian).
- ^ abPeroomian, Rubina (2007). 'Historical Memory: Threading the Contemporary Literature of Armenia'. In Hovannisian, Richard (ed.). The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies. Transaction Publishers. p. 113. ISBN9781412835923.
...the majestic duo of Sis and Masis (the two peaks of Mount Ararat) that hover above the Erevan landscape are constant reminders of the historical injustice.
- ^Delitzsch, Franz (2001). New Commentary on Genesis. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 274. ISBN978-1-57910-813-7.
The Armenians call Little Ararat sis and Great Ararat masis, whence it seems that great, the meaning of meds, is contained in ma.
- ^Hovhannisyan, L. Sh. (2016). Բառերի մեկնությունը հինգերորդ դարի հայ մատենագրուտյան մեջ [Interpretation of words in 5th century Armenian manuscripts] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Gitutyun. p. 61.
- ^Khorenatsi 1978, p. 91.
- ^ abPetrossyan 2010, p. 221.
- ^ abcNovoseltsev 1978.
- ^Petrosyan 2016, p. 72.
- ^Dalton, Robert H. (2004). Sacred Places of the World: A Religious Journey Across the Globe. Abhishek. p. 133. ISBN9788182470514.
The Turkish name for Mt Ararat is Agri Dagi (which means mountain of pain).
- ^McCarta, Robertson (1992). Turkey (2nd ed.). Nelles. p. 210. ISBN9783886184019.
(Turkish: Agri Dagi, 'Mount of Sorrows')
- ^ abSarıkaya, Mehmet Akif (2012). 'Recession of the ice cap on Mount Ağrı (Ararat), Turkey, from 1976 to 2011 and its climatic significance'. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 46: 190–194. Bibcode:2012JAESc..46..190S. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.12.009.
- ^'Xortekî tirk dixwaze bi bîsîklêtê xwe ji çiyayê Agirî berde xwarê' (in Kurdish). Rudaw Media Network. 19 June 2014.
- ^Waugh, Alexander (27 August 2008). 'Will he, won't He? Ararat by Frank Westerman, translated by Sam Garrett'. The Spectator.
- ^'Ağrı – Mount Ararat'. Republic of Turkey Ministry of culture and tourism (kultur.gov.tr). 2005.
- ^Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster. 2001. p. 63. ISBN9780877795469.
- ^Haggett, Peter, ed. (2002). 'Turkey'. Encyclopedia of World Geography: The Middle East (2nd ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 2026. ISBN978-0-7614-7289-6.
- ^Hartemann, Frederic; Hauptman, Robert (2005). The Mountain Encyclopedia. Lanham, Maryland: Taylor Trade. p. 17. ISBN978-0-8108-5056-9.
- ^Galichian, Rouben (2004). Historic Maps of Armenia: The Cartographic Heritage. I.B. Tauris. p. 26. ISBN978-1-86064-979-0.
- ^Kurter, Ajun (20 May 1988). 'Glaciers of the Middle East and Africa: Turkey'(PDF). United States Geological Survey Professional Paper. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
- ^'Maps of Ararat - Ararat Map, Turkey (Agri Dagi)'. turkeyodyssey.com. Terra Anatolia. Archived from the original on 2007-02-25.
- ^According to Petter E. Bjørstad, Head of Informatics Department at the University of Bergen (Norway). 'Ararat Trip Report'. ii.uib.no. August 2007. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017.
I measured the summit elevation, averaging more than 300 samples in my GPS, it settled on 5132 meter, 5 meter lower than the often quoted 5137 figure. This clearly shows that the 5165 meter elevation that many sources use is wrong. The summit is a snow ridge with no visible rock anywhere. Thus, the precise elevation will change with the seasons and could definitely be influenced by climate change (global warming). Later GPS measurements in Iran suggested that the GPS data may be about 10 meter too high also in this part of the world. This would in fact point in the direction of a true Ararat elevation around 5125 meter.
- ^ abcBlumenthal, M. M. (1958). 'Vom Agrl Dag (Ararat) zum Kagkar Dag. Bergfahrten in nordostanatolischen Grenzlande'. Die Alpen (in German). 34: 125–137.
- ^ abSarıkaya, Mehmet Akif; Tekeli, A. E. (2014). 'Satellite inventory of glaciers in Turkey'. In J. S. Kargel; et al. (eds.). Global Land Ice Measurements from Space. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 465–480. ISBN978-3540798170.
- ^ abBirman, J. H. (1968). 'Glacial Reconnaissance in Turkey'. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 79 (8): 1009–1026. Bibcode:1968GSAB...79.1009B. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1968)79[1009:GRIT]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ abDewey, J. F.; Hempton, M. R.; Kidd, W. S. F.; Saroglum, F.; Sengὃr, A. M. C. (1986). 'Shortening of continental lithosphere: the neotectonics of Eastern Anatolia – a young collision zone'. In Coward, M. P.; Ries, A. C. (eds.). Collision Tectonics. Geological Society of London. pp. 3–36.
- ^ abcdKarakhanian, A.; Djrbashian, R.; Trifonov, V.; Philip, H.; Arakelian, S.; Avagian, A. (2002). 'Holocene–Historical Volcanism and Active Faults as Natural Risk Factor for Armenia and Adjacent Countries'. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 113 (1): 319–344. Bibcode:2002JVGR..113..319K. doi:10.1016/s0377-0273(01)00264-5.
- ^ abcdKarakhanian, A.S.; Trifonov, V.G.; Philip, H.; Avagyan, A.; Hessami, K.; Jamali, F.; Bayraktutan, M. S.; Bagdassarian, H.; Arakelian, S.; Davtian, V.; Adilkhanyan, A. (2004). 'Active faulting and natural hazards in Armenia, Eastern Turkey and North-Western Iran'. Tectonophysics. 380 (3–4): 189–219. Bibcode:2004Tectp.380..189K. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2003.09.020.
- ^Allen, Mark B.; Mark, Darren F.; Kheirkhah, Monireh; Barfod, Dan; Emami, Mohammad H.; Saville, Christopher (2011). '40Ar/39Ar dating of Quaternary lavas in northwest Iran: constraints on the landscape evolution and incision rates of the Turkish–Iranian plateau'. Geophysical Journal International. 185 (3): 1175–1188. Bibcode:2011GeoJI.185.1175A. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246x.2011.05022.x.
- ^ abSiebert, L., T. Simkin, and P. Kimberly (2010) Volcanoes of the world, 3rd ed. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. 551 pp. ISBN978-0-520-26877-7.
- ^ abHaroutiunian, R. A. (2005). 'Катастрофическое извержение вулкана Арарат 2 июля 1840 года [Catastrophic eruption of volcano Ararat on 2 july, 1840]'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia: Earth Sciences (in Russian). 58 (1): 27–35. ISSN0515-961X.
- ^Taymaz, Tuncay; Eyidog̃an, Haluk; Jackson, James (1991). 'Source parameters of large earthquakes in the East Anatolian fault zone (Turkey)'. Geophysical Journal International. 106 (3): 537–550. Bibcode:1991GeoJI.106..537T. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246x.1991.tb06328.x.
- ^ abWilliam of Rubruck (1998). The Journey of William of Rubruck to the Eastern Parts of the World, 1253–55. Translated by W. W. Rockhill. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 269–270. ISBN978-81-206-1338-6.
[...] mountains in which they say that Noah's ark rests; and there are two mountains, the one greater than the other; and the Araxes flows at their base [...] Many have tried to climb it, but none has been able. [...] An old man gave me quite a good reason why one ought not to try to climb it. They call the mountain Massis [...] 'No one,' he said, 'ought to climb up Massis; it is the mother of the world.'
- ^Stackhouse, Thomas (1836). A History of the Holy Bible. Glasgow: Blackie and Son. p. 93.
- ^Siekierski, Konrad (2014). ''One Nation, One Faith, One Church': The Armenian Apostolic Church and the Ethno-Religion in Post-Soviet Armenia'. In Agadjanian, Alexander (ed.). Armenian Christianity Today: Identity Politics and Popular Practice. Ashgate Publishing. p. 14. ISBN978-1-4724-1273-7.
- ^Parrot 2016, p. 139
- ^ abRandveer, Lauri (October 2009). 'How the Future Rector Conquered Ararat'. University of Tartu.
- ^Khachaturian, Lisa (2011). Cultivating Nationhood in Imperial Russia: The Periodical Press and the Formation of a Modern Armenian Identity. Transaction Publishers. p. 52. ISBN978-1-4128-1372-3.
- ^Milner, Thomas (1872). The Gallery of Geography: A Pictorial and Descriptive Tour of the World, Volume 2. W.R. M'Phun & Son. p. 783.
Great Ararat was ascended for the first time by Professor Parrot, October 9, 1829...
- ^Giles, Thomas (27 April 2016). 'Friedrich Parrot: The man who became the 'father of Russian mountaineering''. Russia Beyond the Headlines. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
- ^Ketchian, Philip K. (December 24, 2005). 'Climbing Ararat: Then and Now'. The Armenian Weekly. 71 (52). Archived from the original on September 8, 2009.
- ^Parrot 2016, p. 142.
- ^Parrot 2016, p. 141-142.
- ^Parrot 2016, p. 183.
- ^Fairbairn, Patrick (1866). 'Ararat'. The Imperial Bible-Dictionary: Historical, Biographical, Geographical and Doctrinal – Volume I. p. 119.
- ^Polo, Marco; Yule, Henry (2010). The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian: Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN978-1-108-02206-4.
- ^ abBryce, James (1878). 'On Armenia and Mount Ararat'. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London. 22 (3): 169–186. doi:10.2307/1799899. JSTOR1799899.
- ^Lynch, H. F. B. (1893). 'The ascent of Ararat'. The Geographical Journal. 2: 458.
- ^Lynch, H. F. B. (1901). Armenia, travels and studies. Volume I: The Russian Provinces. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 176.
- ^'Conquering the legendary Mount Ararat'. Hürriyet Daily News. 15 January 2006.
- ^Spar, Ira (2003). 'The Mesopotamian Legacy: Origins of the Genesis tradition'. In Aruz, Joan (ed.). Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 488. ISBN978-1-58839-043-1.
- ^Morgenstern, Julian (1941). 'Psalm 48'. Hebrew Union College Annual. 16: 1–95. JSTOR23502992.
Note the plural, hare 'Ararat; not 'Mt. Ararat,' as traditionally translated and interpreted, but rather '(one of) the mountains of Ararat,' i. e. of Urartu or Armenia.
- ^ abRichard James Fischer (2007). 'Mount Ararat'. Historical Genesis: From Adam to Abraham. University Press of America. pp. 109–111. ISBN9780761838074.
- ^ abArnold 2008, p. 105.
- ^Kurkjian, Vahan (1964) [1958]. A History of Armenia. New York: Armenian General Benevolent Union of America. p. 2.
- ^Room, Adrian (1997). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings. McFarland. p. 34. ISBN9780786401727.
- ^ abcVos, Howard F. (1982). 'Flood (Genesis)'. In Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (ed.). International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J (fully revised ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 319. ISBN978-0-8028-3782-0.
- ^Tremblais, Jean-Louis (16 July 2011). 'Ararat, montagne biblique'. Le Figaro (in French).
- 'Biblical mountain's glaciers shrinking'. News24. 8 August 2010.
- ^ abAvagyan, Ṛafayel (1998). Yerevan—heart of Armenia: meetings on the roads of time. Union of Writers of Armenia. p. 17.
The sacred biblical mountain prevailing over Yerevan was the very visiting card by which foreigners came to know our country.
- ^Bailey, Lloyd R. (1990). 'Ararat'. In Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey (eds.). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. p. 54. ISBN978-0-86554-373-7.
...the local (Armenian) population called Masis and which they began to identify as the ark's landing place in the eleventh-twelfth centuries.
- ^Conybeare, F. C. (1901). 'Reviewed Work: Ararat und Masis. Studien zur armenischen Altertumskunde und Litteratur by Friedrich Murad'. The American Journal of Theology. 5 (2): 335–337. doi:10.1086/477703. JSTOR3152410.
Masis was anyhow a center and focus of pagan myths and cults, which the author enumerates; and it was only in the eleventh century, after these had vanished from the popular mind, that the Armenian theologians ventured to locate on its eternal snows the resting-place of Noah's ark.
- ^ abSpencer, Lee; Lienard, Jean Luc (2005). 'The Search for Noah's Ark'. Southwestern Adventist University. (archived)
- ^Mandeville, John (2012). The Book of Marvels and Travels. Translated by Anthony Bale. Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN9780199600601.
...there's another mountain called Ararat; the Jews call this Thano, where Noah's ship rested, and it is still there. One can glimpse it from afar in clear weather, and the mountain is seven miles high.
- ^Mandel, Jerome (2013). 'Ararat, Mount'. In Friedman, John Block; Figg, Kristen Mossler (eds.). Trade, Travel, and Exploration in the Middle Ages: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 30. ISBN978-1-135-59094-9.
- ^'Նոյն իջնում է Արարատից (1889) [Descent of Noah from Ararat (1889)]' (in Armenian). National Gallery of Armenia.
- ^Conway Morris, Roderick (24 February 2012). 'The Key to Armenia's Survival'. The New York Times.
- ^ aboriginal title: Dictionnaire historique, critique, chronologique, geographique et literal de la Bible. English translation: Calmet, Augustin (1830). 'Ararat'. Calmet's Dictionary of the Holy Bible: With the Biblical Fragments, Volume 1. Charles Taylor (translator). London: Holdsworth and Ball. p. 178–179. '...a famous mountain in Armenia, on which the ark is said to have rested, after the deluge.'
- ^Jamieson, Robert; Fausset, Andrew Robert; Brown, David (1871). Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible.view Genesis 8:4 commentary online '...mountain which tradition points to as the one on which the ark rested.'
- ^Dwight 1856, p. 189: 'The mountain on which, according to ancient Armenian tradition, and the general opinion of the learned in Europe, the ark of Noah rested after the deluge, is called in Armenian Masis, and in Turkish Aghur Dagh...'
- ^'Homily of John Paul II'. vatican.va. Holy See. 26 September 2001. Archived from the original on 19 December 2016.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
- ^'Приветственная речь Святейшего Патриарха Кирилла в кафедральном соборе Эчмиадзина [Welcome speech by His Holiness Patriarch Kirill at the Cathedral of Etchmiadzin]'. patriarchia.ru (in Russian). Russian Orthodox Church. 16 March 2010. Archived from the original on 19 December 2016.
Каждый, кто приезжает в Армению, получает неизгладимое впечатление, лицезрея ее главный символ — священную гору Арарат, на которой остановился после потопа ковчег праотца Ноя.
CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) - ^Patai, Raphael; Oettinger, Ayelet (2015). 'Ararat'. In Patai, Raphael; Bar-Itzhak, Haya (eds.). Encyclopedia of Jewish Folklore and Traditions. Routledge. pp. 50–51. ISBN9780765620255.
- ^Balsiger, David; Sellier Jr., Charles E. (1974). In Search of Noah's Ark. Sunn Classic Books. p. 203.
- ^Zenian, David (1 July 1996). 'The Holy Etchmiadzin Museum: History of a Long Journey'. AGBU Magazine.
- ^Mayell, Hillary (27 April 2004). 'Noah's Ark Found? Turkey Expedition Planned for Summer'. National Geographic. pp. 1, 2.
- ^Cline, Eric H. (2009). Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 72. ISBN978-0-19-534263-5.
- ^Fagan, Garrett G. (2006). Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public. Psychology Press. p. 69. ISBN978-0-415-30592-1.
- ^Feder, Kenneth L. (2010). 'Noah's Ark'. Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology: From Atlantis to the Walam Olum: From Atlantis to the Walam Olum. ABC-CLIO. pp. 195–196. ISBN978-0-313-37919-2.
- ^ abBoniface, Brian; Cooper, Chris; Cooper, Robyn (2012). Worldwide Destinations: The Geography of Travel and Tourism (6th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 338. ISBN978-0-415-52277-9.
The snow-capped peak of Ararat is a holy mountain and national symbol for Armenians, dominating the horizon in the capital, Erevan, yet it is virtually inaccessible as it lies across the border in Turkey.
- ^Lydolph, Paul E. (1979). Geography of the U.S.S.R., Topical Analysis. Misty Valley Publishing. p. 46.
...about 65 kilometers south of Yerevan where Mount Ararat reaches an elevation of 5156 meters.
- ^Shoemaker, M. Wesley (2014). 'Armenia'. Russia and The Commonwealth of Independent States 2014. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 203. ISBN9781475812268.
Mt. Ararat, traditionally associated with Armenia...
- ^Walker, Christopher J. (1990) [1980]. Armenia: The Survival of a Nation (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 11. ISBN978-0-312-04230-1.
...Mount Ararat, closely identified with Armenia throughout her history...
- ^Gabrielian, M. C. (1892). The Armenians: or the People of Ararat. Philadelphia: Allen, Lane & Scott.
- ^Burtt, Joseph (1926). The People of Ararat. London: L. and Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press. OCLC3522299.
- ^Villari, Luigi (1906). Fire and Sword in the Caucasus. London: T. Fisher Unwin. p. 215.
- ^Levonian Cole, Teresa (30 October 2010). 'Armenia opens up to visitors'. Financial Times.
Ararat, the supreme symbol of Armenia...
- ^Boltyansky, Boris (24 October 2015). 'Солнце мое' (in Russian). lenta.ru.
Библейский Арарат, символ страны, стал главным брендом Армении.
- ^Adriaans 2011, p. 35.
- ^Darieva, Tsypylma (2006). 'Bringing the soil back to the homeland: Reconfigurations of representation of loss in Armenia'(PDF). Comparativ: Leipziger Beiträge zur Universalgeschichte und Vergleichenden Gesellschaftsforschung (3): 90. Archived from the original on 2017-05-21.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
- ^Companjen, Françoise; Marácz, László Károly; Versteegh, Lia, eds. (2010). Exploring the Caucasus in the 21st Century: Essays on Culture, History and Politics in a Dynamic Context. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN9789089641830.
- ^Darke, Diana (2014). Eastern Turkey. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 317. ISBN978-1-84162-490-7.
...of course Mount Ararat is for Armenians their holy mountain...
- 'Арарат'. Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary Volume II (in Russian). 1890.
Арарат давно считался священной горой у армян...
on Russian Wikisource
- 'Арарат'. Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary Volume II (in Russian). 1890.
- ^Melton, J. Gordon (2010). 'Ararat, Mount'. In Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (eds.). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 164. ISBN978-1-59884-204-3.
- ^ abAdalian, Rouben Paul (2010). Historical Dictionary of Armenia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. 85. ISBN978-0-8108-7450-3.
- ^Sakalli, Seyhun Orcan (2014). 'Coexistence, Polarization and Development: The Armenian Legacy in Modern Turkey'(PDF). HEC Lausanne. Archived from the original on 2016-12-15.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
- ^Lottman, Herbert R. (29 February 1976). 'Despite Ages of Captivity, The Armenians Persevere'. The New York Times. p. 287.
- ^Bryce 1877, p. 234.
- ^Maxoudian, Noubar (1952). 'Early Armenia as an empire: The career of Tigranes III, 96–55 B.C'. Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society. 39 (2): 156–163. doi:10.1080/03068375208731438.
- ^ abShirinian, Lorne (1992). The Republic of Armenia and the rethinking of the North-American Diaspora in literature. Edwin Mellen Press. p. 78. ISBN978-0773496132.
- ^Hacikyan, Agop Jack; Basmajian, Gabriel; Franchuk, Edward S.; Ouzounian, Nourhan (2005). The Heritage of Armenian Literature: From the eighteenth century to modern times. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 292. ISBN9780814332214.
- ^Khorenatsi 1978, p. 85.
- ^Panossian 2006, p. 51.
- ^Panossian 2006, pp. 51–52.
- ^'State symbols of the Republic of Armenia'. president.am. Office to the President of the Republic of Armenia.
- ^Matevosian, V.; Haytayan, P. (1984). 'Սարյան Մարտիրոս (Saryan Martiros)'. Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia Volume 10 (in Armenian). p. 240.
1921–ին Հ. Կոջոյանի հետ ստեղծել է Խորհրդային Հայաստանի գերբը...
- ^Meier, Reinhard (1975). 'Soviet Armenia Today'. Swiss Review of World Affairs. 25–26.
The impressive mountain also has its place as the central image in the coat of arms of the Armenian Soviet Republic (coupled, of course, with a five-pointed Soviet star).
- ^Adriaans 2011, p. 48.
- ^Johnson, Jerry L. (2000). Crossing Borders – Confronting History: Intercultural Adjustment in the Post-Cold War World. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. pp. 6–7. ISBN978-0-7618-1536-5.
Armenians view Mount Ararat as both a symbol of the Genocide and loss of hallowed land.
- ^Goldman, Ari L. (18 December 1988). 'A History Full of Anguish and Agony; The Armenians, Still 'Like Job's People''. The New York Times.
- ^Adriaans 2011, p. 40.
- ^Platz, Stephanie (1996), Pasts and Futures: Space, History and Armenian Identity 1988–1994, University of Chicago, p. 34
- ^'Armenian protest against Erdogan visit turns violent'. The Daily Star. 26 November 2010. Retrieved 28 June 2013.
- ^ abBalci, Bayram (2014). 'Between ambition and realism: Turkey's engagement in the South Caucasus'. In Agadjanian, Alexander; Jödicke, Ansgar; van der Zweerde, Evert (eds.). Religion, Nation and Democracy in the South Caucasus. Routledge. p. 260. ISBN978-1-317-69157-0.
Armenia has not officially expressed territorial claims in respect of Turkey but the regular references to the genocide and to Mount Ararat, a national symbol for Armenians which is situated in contemporary Turkey, clearly indicates that the border with their eastern neighbour is contested.
- ^Phillips, David L. (2005). Unsilencing the Past: Track Two Diplomacy and Turkish-Armenian Reconciliation. New York: Berghahn Books. p. 68. ISBN978-1-84545-007-6.
- ^Danielyan, Emil (28 July 2011). 'Erdogan Demands Apology From Armenia'. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
- ^Bidder, Benjamin (6 April 2010). 'Serge Sarkisian on Armenian-Turkish Relations: 'We Wanted to Break Through Centuries of Hostility''. Der Spiegel.
- ^Harutyunyan, Arus (2009). Contesting National Identities in an Ethnically Homogeneous State: The Case of Armenian Democratization. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Western Michigan University. p. 89. ISBN978-1-109-12012-7.
- ^'Return of ruins of Ani and of Mount Ararat could be considered as convincing gesture of Turkey's apologies: Tessa Hofmann'. Armenpress. 16 April 2015.
- ^'Frantisek Miklosko demands that Turkey return Biblical Mount Ararat to Armenians'. PanARMENIAN.Net. 14 September 2010.
- ^Shtromas, Alexander (2003). Faulkner, Robert K.; Mahoney, Daniel J. (eds.). Totalitarianism and the Prospects for World Order: Closing the Door on the Twentieth Century. Lexington Books. p. 387. ISBN978-0-7391-0534-4.
- ^ abHealey, Barth (23 August 1992). 'STAMPS; For Armenia, Rainbows And Eagles in Flight'. The New York Times.
- ^Abrahamian, Levon (2007). 'Dancing around the mountain: Armenian identity through rites of solidarity'. In Grant, Bruce; Yalçın-Heckmann, Lale (eds.). Caucasus Paradigms: Anthropologies, Histories and the Making of a World Area. Berlin: Lit Verlag. pp. 167–188. ISBN9783825899066.
- ^Ermochkine, Nicholas; Iglikowski, Peter (2003). 40 Degrees East: An Anatomy of Vodka. New York: Nova Science Publishers. p. 121. ISBN978-1-59033-594-9.
Undoubtedly the top of the tops of East European brandies is the Armenian brandy called Ararat...
- ^Ritman, Alex (17 August 2012). 'My Kind of Place: Yerevan has thrived through conquest'. The National.
- ^Radisson Blu Hotel, Yerevan. 'Radisson Blu Hotel, Yerevan'. radissonblu.com.
Our magnificent hilltop setting provides beautiful views of Yerevan city center against the backdrop of Mount Ararat...
- ^Ani Plaza Hotel. 'Ani Plaza: Hotel in Yerevan, Armenia'. anihotel.com.
The guest rooms offer a spectacular view over the city: one can admire the famous Mount Ararat – the symbol of Armenia...
- ^Sarkssian, M. S. (1963). 'Հովհաննես Այվազովսկին և հայ մշակույթը [Hovhannes Ayvazovsky and Armenian Culture]'. Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in Armenian). № 4 (4): 25–38.
Դեռևս 1860–ակա ն թթ. Անդրկովկասում կատարած ճանապարհորդության ժամանակ և դրանից հետո Այվազովսկին նկարում է Արարատի և Սևանի գեղատեսիլ բնության պատկերներ։ Մինչ այդ հայ նկարիչներից ոչ ոք չէր տվել Արարատը և Արարատյան դաշտը պատկերող կտավներ։
- ^Khachatrian, Shahen. ''Поэт моря' ['The Sea Poet']' (in Russian). Center of Spiritual Culture, Leading and National Research Samara State Aerospace University. Archived from the original on 19 March 2014.
- ^'Martiros Sarian (1880–1972) View of Mount Ararat from Yerevan'. Christie's. 3 June 2013.
- ^Antonson 2016.
- ^Jeffrey, David L. (1992). A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 287. ISBN9780802836342.
- ^Wordsworth, William (1838). The Sonnets of William Wordsworth: Collected in One Volume, with a Few Additional Ones, Now First Published. E. Moxon. p. 209.
- ^Pushkin, Aleksandr (1974). A Journey to Arzrum. Translated by Birgitta Ingemanson. Ann Arbor: Ardis. p. 50. ISBN978-0882330679.
- ^Dmitriev, Vladimir Alekseevich (2014). 'Древнеармянские сюжеты в творчестве В.Я. Брюсова: к вопросу о влиянии событий Первой мировой войны на русскую литературу начала XX в.'(PDF). In Bogush, V. A. (ed.). Первая мировая война в исторических судьбах Европы : сб. материалов Междунар. науч. конф., г. Вилейка, 18 окт. 2014 г. (in Russian). Minsk: Belarusian State University. p. 404.
Для В. Брюсова Арарат — это прежде всего символ, олицетворяющий древность армянского народа и его культуры...
- ^Mandelstam, Osip (2011). A Journey to Armenia. Translated by Sidney Monas. London: Notting Hill Editions. p. 91. ISBN9781907903472.
- ^Grossman, Vasily (2013). An Armenian Sketchbook. Translated by Robert Chandler; Elizabeth Chandler. Introduction by Robert Chandler and Yury Bit-Yunan. New York: New York Review Books. p. 24. ISBN9781590176184.
- ^Siraganian, Lisa (2012). Modernism's Other Work: The Art Object's Political Life. Oxford University Press. p. 156. ISBN978-0-19-979655-7.
- ^Karakashian, Meliné (1998). 'Armenia: A Country's History of Challenges'. Journal of Social Issues. 54 (2): 381–392. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1998.tb01225.x.
- ^ abBardakjian, Kevork B., ed. (2000). 'Hovhannes Širaz'. A Reference Guide to Modern Armenian Literature, 1500–1920: With an Introductory History. Wayne State University Press. p. 227. ISBN978-0814327470.
- ^'I Love My Armenia by Yeghishe Charents'. Ararat. 15: 46. 1960.
- ^Ter-Khachatryan, Yervand (11 December 2014). 'Բանաստեղծը Ռավեննայում'. Azg (in Armenian). Archived from the original on April 11, 2016.
- ^Chrysanthopoulos, Leonidas (2002). Caucasus Chronicles: Nation-building and Diplomacy in Armenia, 1993–1994. Gomidas Institute. p. 21. ISBN978-1-884630-05-7.
- ^Panossian 2006, p. 335.
- ^'We Are Few... by Barouyr Sevak'. Ararat. 21–22: 5. 1978.
- ^'System of a Down – Holy Mountains Lyrics'. genius.com.
- ^'Arto Tuncboyaciyan – Ararat'. Sharm Holding production.
- ^Hogikyan, Nellie (2007). 'Atom Egoyan's Post-exilic Imaginary: Representing Homeland, Imagining Family'. In Burwell, Jennifer; Tschofen, Monique (eds.). Image and Territory: Essays on Atom Egoyan. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 202. ISBN978-0-88920-487-4.
- ^'Nights are long and dark'. Looduskalender.ee. 29 March 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2017.
- ^Ter-Sahakian, Karine (29 March 2014). 'Armenian community of Estonia: A look into the future'. PanARMENIAN.Net. Retrieved 11 October 2017.
- ^''Journey to Ararat' Documentary Film'. Golden Apricot International Film Festival. July 2013.
- ^'Պատմական ակնարկ [Historical overview]'. ararat.mtad.am (in Armenian). Ministry of Territorial Administration and Development of Armenia.
Ի թիվս այլոց Արարատի անունն է կրում Հայաստանի Հանրապետության գողտրիկ անկյուններից մեկը` Արարատի մարզը....
- ^Nişanyan, Sevan (2010). 'Ağrı il – Merkez – Ağrı'. Index Anatolicus (in Turkish).
- ^Powell, William S.; Hill, Michael (2010). The North Carolina Gazetteer, 2nd Ed: A Dictionary of Tar Heel Places and Their History. University of North Carolina Press. p. 13. ISBN9780807898291.
- ^Blackman, Emily C. (1873). History of Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen, & Haffelfinger. p. 474.
...the locality he selected did not belie in natural features its namesake of Noah's time.
- ^'Municipality of Ararat, Victoria'. Museums Victoria.
In 1840 Wills camped near a large bald mountain which he named Mount Ararat, for 'Like the Ark, we rested there'.
- ^Molony, John (2000). The Native-born: The First White Australians. Melbourne University Publish. p. 138. ISBN9780522849035.
- ^'96205 Ararat (1992 ST16)'. ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA).
- ^'Erebuni Museum'. armenianheritage.org. Armenia Monuments Awareness Project.
The first unified state in the Armenian Highland was Urartu, mentioned in Armenian written records as the Land of Arartu or Araratian Kingdom (the Kingdom of Ararat)....
- ^Abrahamian, Levon (2006). Armenian identity in a changing world. Mazda Publishers. p. 11. ISBN9781568591858.
- ^'Անդրանիկ. 'Իմ զինվորն անզեն ու անձայն վկա չի դառնա''. mediamax.am (in Armenian). 13 July 2018.
«Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն» խոսքն էլ ընդունելի չէր շատերի համար, եղածը սոսկ «Արարատյան Հանրապետություն» էր»,- գրում է Վրացյանը։
- ^Mkhitaryan, Lusine (25 May 2018). 'Անկախ Հայաստանի անդրանիկ տոնը'. Hayastani Hanrapetutyun (in Armenian).
- ^Hovannisian, Richard (1971). The Republic of Armenia: The first year, 1918–1919. University of California Press. p. 259.
- ^Aftandilian, Gregory L. (1981). Armenia, vision of a republic: the independence lobby in America, 1918–1927. Charles River Books. p. 25.
- ^Gunter, Michael M. (2009). The A to Z of the Kurds. Scarecrow Press. p. 9. ISBN9780810863347.
- ^Vali, Abbas (2003). Essays on the origins of Kurdish nationalism. Mazda Publishers. p. 199. ISBN9781568591421.
Bibliography
General works cited in the article
- Movses Khorenatsi (1978). History of the Armenians. Translated by Robert W. Thomson. Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-39571-8.
- Panossian, Razmik (2006). The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN9780231139267.
- Arnold, Bill T. (2008). Genesis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-00067-3.
- Adriaans, Rik (2011). 'Sonorous Borders: National Cosmology & the Mediation of Collective Memory in Armenian Ethnopop Music'. University of Amsterdam. pp. 24–27. Archived from the original(M.Sc. Thesis) on March 5, 2016.
Specific works on Ararat
- Parrot, Friedrich (2016) [1846]. Journey to Ararat. Translated by William Desborough Cooley. Introduction by Pietro A. Shakarian. London: Gomidas Institute. ISBN978-1909382244.
- Dwight, H.G.O. (1856). 'Armenian Traditions about Mt. Ararat'. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 5: 189–191. doi:10.2307/592222. JSTOR592222.
- Bryce, James (1877). Transcaucasia and Ararat: Being Notes of a Vacation Tour in Autumn of 1876. London: Macmillan and Co.
- Murad, Friedrich (1901). Ararat und Masis: Studien zur armenischen Altertumskunde und Litteratur (in German). Heidelberg: Carl Winters Universitätsbuchhandlung.
- Novoseltsev, Anatoly (1978). 'О местонахождении библейской 'горы Арарат' (On the location of the biblical 'mountains of Ararat')'. Европа в древности и средневековье (Europe in the antiquity and the Middle Ages) (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka. pp. 61–66.
- Ketchian, Philip K. (24 December 2005). 'Climbing Ararat: Then and Now'. The Armenian Weekly. 71 (52). Archived from the original on September 8, 2009.
- Melkonyan, Ashot (2008). Արարատ. Հայոց անմահության խորհուրդը [Ararat: Symbol of Armenian Immortality] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Tigrant Mets Publishing.
- Petrossyan, Sargis (2010). 'Արարատյան լեռների հին անունների և անվանադիրների մասին [About the Ancient Names and Eponyms of the Ararat Mountains]'. Patma-Banasirakan Handes. № 3 (3): 220–227.
- Antonson, Rick (2016). Full Moon over Noah's Ark: An Odyssey to Mount Ararat and Beyond. Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN9781510705678.
- Petrosyan, Armen (2016). 'Biblical Mt. Ararat: Two Identifications'. Comparative Mythology. 2 (1): 68–80. ISSN2409-9899.
Books on Armenia with Ararat in their titles
- Gregory, S. M. (1920). The land of Ararat: twelve discourses on Armenia, her history and her church. London: Chiswick Press.
- Elliott, Mabel Evelyn (1924). Beginning Again at Ararat. Introduction by John H. Finley. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company.
- Yeghenian, Aghavnie Y. (2013) [1932]. The Red Flag at Ararat. Introduction by Pietro A. Shakarian. London: Sterndale Classics (Gomidas Institute). ISBN978-1909382022.
- Burney, Charles; Lang, David Marshall (1971). The Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat and Caucasus. New York: Praeger.
- Arlen, Michael J. (2006) [1975]. Passage to Ararat. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN978-0374530129.
- Suny, Ronald Grigor (1993). Looking Toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Indiana University Press. ISBN978-0253207739.
- Walker, Christopher J., ed. (1997). Visions of Ararat: Writings on Armenia. I.B. Tauris. ISBN9781860641114.
- Asher, Armen; Minasian Asher, Teryl (2009). The Peoples of Ararat. BookSurge Publishing. ISBN978-1439225677.
- Golden, Christopher (2017). Ararat. St. Martin's Press. ISBN978-1250117052.
External links
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